Bai Hu Tong Yi (白虎通義)

天子者，爵稱也。爵所以稱天子者何？王者父天母地，為天之子也。故《援神契》曰：天覆地載謂之天子，上法斗極。”《鉤命決》曰：“天子，爵稱也。”帝王之德有優劣，所以俱稱天子者何？以其俱命於天，而王治五千裡內也。《尚書》曰：天子作民父母，以為天下王。”何以知帝亦稱天子也，以法天下也？《中候》曰：“天子臣放勳。”《書?逸篇》曰：“厥兆天子爵。”何以“言皇”亦稱天子也？以其言天覆地載俱王天下也。故《易》曰：“伏羲氏之王天下也。”

"Son of Heaven" is a title of rank (jue, rank and enfeoffment title). Why is the ruler called Son of Heaven among the ranks? Because the true king takes Heaven as his father and Earth as his mother, and is the son of Heaven. So the Yuanshen qi says: "Heaven covers and Earth bears, and this is called Son of Heaven, taking above as a model the Northern Dipper and the celestial pole." The Gouming jue says: "The Son of Heaven is a title of rank." The virtue of emperors and kings may be better or worse, yet all are called Son of Heaven; why? Because all receive the mandate from Heaven and rule as king within five thousand li. The Book of Documents says: "The Son of Heaven is the father and mother of the people, and thereby becomes king of the world." How do we know that an emperor is also called Son of Heaven? This is taking Heaven's world as the model. The Zhonghou says: "Fang Xun, the subject of the Son of Heaven." A lost chapter of the Book of Documents says: "That omen is the rank of the Son of Heaven." How do we know that the sovereign is also called Son of Heaven? Because when speaking of Heaven covering and Earth bearing, all rule as king of the world. So the Book of Changes says: "Fuxi ruled as king of the world."

爵有五等，以法五行也；或三等者，法三光也。或法三光，或法五行何？質家者據天，故法三光；文家者據地，故法五行。《含文嘉》曰：“殷爵三等，周爵五等，各有宜也。”《王制》曰：“王者之制祿爵凡五等。”謂公、侯、伯、子、男。此周制也。所以名之為公侯者何。公者通公正無私之意也。侯者，候也。候逆順也。《春秋傳》曰：“王者之後稱公，其餘人皆千乘，象雷震百里所潤同。大國稱侯，小者伯、子、男也。”《王制》曰：“公、侯田方百里，伯七十里，子、男五十里。”伯者百也。子者孳也孳孳無已也。男者，任也。人皆五十里，差次功德，小者不滿為附庸，附庸者，附大國以名通也。百里兩爵、公侯共之，七十里一爵，五十里復兩爵何？公者，加尊二王之後，侯者百里之正爵士，上有可次，下有可第，中央故無二。五十里有兩爵者，所以加勉進人也。小國下爵，猶有尊卑，亦以勸人也。殷爵三等，謂公、侯、伯也，所以合子、男從伯者何？王者受命，改文從質，無虛退人之義，故上就伯也。《尚書》曰：“侯、甸、任、衛，作國伯。”謂殷也。《春秋傳》曰：“合伯、子、男為一爵。”或曰：合從子，貴中也。以《春秋》名鄭忽，忽者，鄭伯也。此未逾年之君當稱子，嫌為改赴。故名之也。地有三等不變，至爵獨變者何？地比爵為質，故不變。為質故不變，王者有改道之文，無改道之實。家所以令公居百里、侯居七十里何也？封賢極於百里。其政也，不可空退人，示優賢之意，欲褒尊而上之。何以知殷家侯人不過七十里者也？曰：士上有三等，有百里、有七十里，有五十里。其地半者其數倍，制地之理體也，多少不相配。

Rank is divided into five grades, modeled on the Five Phases; some divide it into only three grades, modeled on the three lights (sun, moon and stars). Why do some model on the three lights and some on the Five Phases? A dynasty that values plainness (the plain house) relies on Heaven, so it models on the three lights; a dynasty that values refinement (the refined house) relies on Earth, so it models on the Five Phases. The Hanwenjia says: "Yin's ranks were three grades and Zhou's were five grades, each having what suited it." The Royal Regulations in the Book of Rites says: "The true king established salaries and ranks, five grades in all." These are duke, marquis, earl, viscount and baron. This is the Zhou system. Why are they called duke and marquis? "Gong" (duke) means being impartial and without private interest; "hou" (marquis) means to watch, watching for the adversity and compliance of people's hearts. The Spring and Autumn Annals commentary says: "The descendants of a true king are called duke, and the rest are all states of a thousand chariots, as thunder shakes a hundred li and the rain moistens a hundred li. A great state is called marquis, and small ones are called earl, viscount and baron." The Royal Regulations says: "The fields of dukes and marquises are each a hundred li square, earls seventy li, viscounts and barons fifty li." "Bo" (earl) means hundred; "zi" (viscount) means to breed, breeding without ceasing; "nan" (baron) means to bear responsibility. Viscounts and barons both have fifty li, graded by merit and virtue, and smaller ones that do not reach the number are called attached states, attached to great states and reaching upward through the name of a great state. The land of a hundred li has two ranks, shared by duke and marquis; seventy li has only one rank; fifty li again has two ranks; why? "Duke" is an extra honor for the descendants of the two former kings, while marquis is the proper rank and land of a hundred li; above there are grades that can be arranged, and below there are also grades that can be arranged, and just in the middle there is therefore no second kind. Setting two grades of rank at fifty li is to lend an extra push, to encourage people to improve. A small state in the lower ranks still has high and low, which is also used to encourage people. Yin's ranks were three grades, duke, marquis and earl. Why were viscount and baron merged and made to follow earl? When a true king receives the mandate, he changes from refinement to plainness, and there is no principle of lowering people without cause, so they were merged upward into earl. The Book of Documents says: "Hou, dian, ren, wei, make the state earls." This speaks of Yin. The Spring and Autumn commentary says: "Combine earl, viscount and baron into one grade of rank." Another account: after merging they follow "viscount," valuing the middle grade. Because the Spring and Autumn Annals calls Hu of Zheng by name, Hu was in fact the Earl of Zheng; this is a ruler who has not yet completed a year and should be called "viscount," but fearing that it would be mistaken as altering the death announcement, he is called by name. The land remained three grades unchanged, and only the ranks changed; why? Land is plainer than rank, so it does not change. Because it is plain, it does not change: a true king has changes in the ornament of the Way but not in its substance. Why did the house of Yin have dukes occupy a hundred li and marquises seventy li? The enfeoffment of worthies goes at most a hundred li. Arranged this way, one cannot lower people without cause, which shows favor to worthies, to praise them and honor them upward. How do we know the house of Yin did not enfeoff marquises beyond seventy li? Answer: above the land there are three grades, with a hundred li, seventy li and fifty li. When the land is halved, the number of states doubles; this is the form of dividing land, and large and small cannot be mismatched.

公、卿、大夫者，何謂也？內爵稱也。曰公、卿、大夫何？爵者，盡也，各量其職盡其才也。公之為言公正無私也；卿之為言章，善明理也；大夫之為言大，扶進人者也。故《傳》曰：“進賢達能，謂之大夫也。士者事也，任事之稱也。”故《傳》曰：“古今辯然否，謂之士。”《禮》曰：“四十強而士。”不言“爵為士”。至五十爵為大夫何。何以知士非爵？何以知卿為爵也。以大夫知卿亦爵也。何以知公為爵也？《春秋傳》曰：“諸侯四佾，諸公六佾。”合而言之，以是知公卿為爵。內爵所以三等何？亦法三光也。所以不變質文何？內者為本，故不改內也。諸侯所以無公爵者，下天子也。故《王制》曰：“上大夫、下大夫、上士、中士、下士，凡五等。”此謂諸侯臣也。大夫但有上、下何？明卑者多也。爵皆一字也，大夫獨兩字何？《春秋傳》曰：“大夫無遂事。”以為大夫，職在之適四方，受君之法，施之於民，故獨兩字下之。或曰大夫，爵之下者也。稱大夫，明從大夫以上受下施，皆大自著也。天子之士獨稱元士何？士賤不得體君之尊，故加元以別諸侯之士也。《禮經》曰：“士見大夫。”諸侯之士。《王制》曰：“王者八十一元士。”天子爵連言天子，諸侯爵不連言王侯何？即言王侯，以王者同稱，為衰弱亻替差生篡弒，猶不能為天子也，故連言天子也。或曰：王者天爵，王者不能生諸侯，故不言王侯；諸侯人事自著，故不著也。王者太子亦稱士何？舉從下升，以為人無生得貴者，莫不由士起，是以舜時稱為天子，必先試於士禮。《士冠經》曰：“天子之元子士也。”

What are meant by duke, minister and grandee? They are the titles of rank within the court. Why are they called duke, minister and grandee? "Jue" (rank) means to exhaust: each measures his own duty and exhausts his talent. "Duke" means impartial and without private interest; "minister" (qing) means to make clear, skilled at explaining principles clearly; "grandee" (dafu) means great, one who can support and introduce talent. So the Commentary says: "One who advances and recommends the worthy and connects the capable is called a grandee. A scholar (shi) means affair, a name for one who bears responsibility for affairs." So the Commentary says: "One who can distinguish right and wrong of past and present is called a scholar." The Rites say: "At forty, strong, one becomes a scholar." It does not say "holds the rank of scholar." Only at fifty does one hold the rank of grandee; why? How do we know a scholar is not a rank? How do we know a minister is a rank? Since grandee is a rank, we can know a minister is also a rank. How do we know a duke is a rank? The Spring and Autumn commentary says: "The feudal lords used four rows of dancers, and the dukes used six rows." Taken together, from this we know duke and minister are ranks. Why are the inner ranks divided into three grades? This too models the three lights. Why do they not change along with plain and refined? The inner is the root, so the inner does not change. The reason the feudal lords have no "duke" in the sense of a ducal rank is to be lower than the Son of Heaven. So the Royal Regulations says: "Senior grandee, junior grandee, senior scholar, middle scholar and junior scholar, five grades in all." This speaks of the ministers of the feudal lords. Grandees only have senior and junior; why? It shows that the lowlier, the more numerous. Rank titles are all one character, but grandee alone is two characters; why? The Spring and Autumn commentary says: "A grandee has no matter that he can decide on his own and carry through." Because the grandee's duty is to go to the four quarters, receive the ruler's regulations and carry them out among the people, two characters alone are used to show he is below. Another account: grandee is the lowest grade among ranks. Being called grandee shows that from grandees upward, receiving what those above grant and bestowing it below, all greatly display themselves. The scholar of the Son of Heaven alone is called "yuan shi" (prime scholar); why? A scholar is lowly and cannot match the ruler's dignity, so "prime" is added to distinguish him from the scholars of the feudal lords. The Classic of Rites says: "A scholar sees a grandee." That is a scholar of a feudal lord. The Royal Regulations says: "The true king has eighty-one prime scholars." The rank of the Son of Heaven is connected with the words "Son of Heaven," while the rank of the feudal lords is not connected as "kings and marquises"; why? If one said "kings and marquises" directly, it would be mixed with the true king, which would give rise to weakness and usurpation, regicide, and still one could not become Son of Heaven, so "Son of Heaven" is connected. (The base text writes a form with a person radical here, which is a mistaken splitting of the character for "usurp.") Another account: the true king is a rank granted by Heaven, and the true king cannot produce feudal lords, so one does not say "kings and marquises"; the feudal lords' human affairs display themselves, so they are not marked again. The crown prince of a true king is also called a scholar; why? It cites the idea of rising from below, holding that no one is noble from birth, and none fails to start as a scholar, so Shun later became Son of Heaven but was first tested with the rites of a scholar. The Classic of the Scholar's Capping says: "The eldest legitimate son of the Son of Heaven is also a scholar."

婦人無爵何？陰卑無外事，是以有“三從”之義：未嫁從父，既嫁從夫，夫死從子。故夫尊於朝，妻榮於室，隨夫之行，故《禮?郊特牲》曰：“婦人無爵，坐以夫之齒。”《禮》曰：“生無爵，死無諡。”《春秋》錄夫人皆有諡，夫人何以知非爵也？《論語》曰：“邦君之妻，君稱之曰夫人，國人稱之曰君夫人。”即令是爵，君稱之與國人稱之不當異也。庶人，稱匹夫者。匹，偶也。與其妻為偶，陰陽相成之義也，一夫一婦成一室。明君人者，不當使男女有過，時無匹偶也。《論語》曰：“匹夫匹婦之為諒也。”

Women have no rank; why? The yin side is lowly and has no duties at the outer court, so there is the principle of the "three followings": before marriage she follows her father, after marriage her husband, and when her husband dies her son. Therefore the husband is honored in the court, the wife is glorified in the household, following the husband's tracks. So the Jiaotesheng chapter of the Book of Rites says: "Women have no rank; their seating follows their husband's age." The Rites say: "In life she has no rank, and after death she has no posthumous name (the title given after death, decided according to the course of life)." The Spring and Autumn Annals records that ladies of rulers all have posthumous names; how do we know a lady is not a rank? The Analects says: "The wife of the ruler, the ruler calls her 'lady,' and the people of the state call her 'ruler's lady.'" If it were a rank, the ruler's way of addressing her and the people's way should not differ. A commoner is called "pi fu": "pi" means a mate, forming a pair with the wife, which means yin and yang complete each other, and one man and one woman make one household. This shows that one who is a ruler should not let men and women miss their time of marriage and be without mates. The Analects says: "Like a commoner man and woman clinging to small fidelity."

爵人於朝者，示不私人以官，與眾共之義也。封諸侯於廟者，示不自專也，明法度，皆祖之制也，舉事必告焉。《王制》曰：“爵人於朝，與眾共之也。”《詩》云：“王命卿士，南仲太祖。”《禮?祭統》曰：“古者明君爵有德，必於太祖。君降立於阼階南面向，所命北向，央由君右執策命之。”

Conferring rank on someone in the court shows that office is not a private favor, and has the sense of sharing it with the many. Enfeoffing feudal lords in the ancestral temple shows that one does not decide alone, making clear that the regulations are all the institutions established by the ancestors, and any such act must be announced in sacrifice. The Royal Regulations says: "To confer rank in the court is to share it with the many." The Book of Odes says: "The king's appointment of the minister was Nan Zhong, in the Great Ancestor's temple." The Jitong chapter of the Book of Rites says: "In ancient times enlightened rulers conferred rank on those with virtue, always in the Great Ancestor's temple. The ruler descended the steps and stood south of the east steps facing south, the one receiving the appointment faced north, and the recorder, standing at the ruler's right with the writ in hand, announced the appointment." (The base text has a character "yang" here, which is a mistake for "scribe.")

大夫功成未封而死，不得追爵賜之者，以其未當股肱也。《春秋穀梁傳》曰：“追錫死者，非禮也。”《王制》曰：“葬從死者，祭從生者，所以追孝繼養也。”葬從死者何？子無爵父之義也。《禮?中庸》記曰：“父為大夫，子為士，葬以大夫祭以士；子為大夫，父為士，祭以大夫葬以士也。”

A grandee whose achievement was already complete but who died before being enfeoffed may not be posthumously granted rank, because he had not truly served as a limb of the state. The Guliang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals says: "To grant posthumously to the dead is not in accord with ritual." The Royal Regulations says: "Burial follows the status of the dead in life, and sacrifice follows the status of the living, so as to exhaust filial piety and continue to provide for them." Why does burial follow the dead? A son has no principle of raising his father's rank. The Doctrine of the Mean in the Book of Rites records: "If the father is a grandee and the son a scholar, bury with the rites of a grandee and sacrifice with the rites of a scholar; if the son is a grandee and the father a scholar, sacrifice with the rites of a grandee and bury with the rites of a scholar."

父在稱世子何？繫於君也。父沒稱子某者何？屈於屍柩也。既葬稱小子者，即尊之漸也。逾年稱公者，緣民之心不可一日無君也。緣終始之義，一年不可有二君也。故逾年即位，所以系民臣之心也。然後爵者，緣孝子之心未忍安吉。故《春秋》：“魯僖公三十三年十二月乙巳，薨於小寢。文公元年春，王正月，公即位。四月丁巳葬我君僖公。”《韓詩內傳》曰：“諸侯世子三年喪畢，上受爵命於天子。”所以名之為世子何？言欲其世世不絕也。何以知天子子亦稱世子也？《春秋傳》曰：“公會世子於首止。”或曰：天子之子稱太子。《尚書》曰：“太子發升於舟也。”或曰：“諸侯之稱代子。”則傳曰：晉有太子申生，鄭有太子華齊。有太子光。由是觀之，周制太子代子亦不定也。漢制天子稱皇帝。其嫡嗣稱皇太子。諸侯王之嫡稱代子。後代鹹因之。世子三年喪畢，必上受爵命於天子何？明爵土者天子之有也，臣無自爵之義。童子當受父爵命，使大夫就其國命之，明王者不與童子為禮也。以《春秋》魯成公幼少，與諸侯會，公不見之，《經》不以為魯恥，明不與童子為禮也。世子上受爵命，衣士服何？謙不敢自專也。故《詩》曰：“有。”世子始行也。

While the father is alive he is called "heir" (shi zi); why? Because he is attached to the ruler. After the father has died he is called "Zi so-and-so"; why? It shows humbling before the corpse and coffin. After burial he is called "little son," gradually moving toward the honored position. After the new year he is called "duke," following the people's hearts: one cannot be without a ruler for a day. It also follows the principle of ending and beginning: within one year there cannot be two rulers. So he ascends the throne after the new year, in order to hold together the hearts of the ministers and people. Then he is granted the formal rank, following the filial son's heart, not yet willing to rest in an auspicious position. So the Spring and Annals records: "In the thirty-third year of Duke Xi of Lu, in the twelfth month, on yisi, he died in the small bedchamber. In the first year of Duke Wen, in spring, in the first month of the Zhou king, the Duke ascended the throne. In the fourth month, on dingsi, our ruler Duke Xi was buried." The Han Shi Neizhuan says: "When the heir of a feudal lord has completed the three years of mourning, he goes to court to receive the Son of Heaven's rank and command." Why is he called shi zi? It means a hope that it will not be cut off through the generations. How do we know the sons of the Son of Heaven are also called shi zi? The Spring and Autumn commentary says: "The Duke met the heir at Shouzhi." Another account: the sons of the Son of Heaven are called crown prince. The Book of Documents says: "Crown Prince Fa boarded the boat." Another account says: "The feudal lords are called dai zi." But the commentaries say that Jin had Crown Prince Shensheng, Zheng had Crown Prince Hua, and Qi had Crown Prince Guang. From this, in Zhou institutions the titles of crown prince and dai zi were also not fixed. Han institutions: the Son of Heaven is called emperor, his legitimate heir is called crown prince, and the legitimate son of a feudal king is called dai zi, and later ages all followed this. When the heir has completed the three-year mourning, he must go to court to receive the Son of Heaven's rank and command; why? It shows that rank and land belong to the Son of Heaven, and ministers have no principle of conferring rank on themselves. When a child should inherit his father's rank and command, a grandee is sent to his state to announce it, showing that a true king does not perform equal rites with a child. Because in the Spring and Autumn Annals Duke Cheng of Lu was young, and when he met with the feudal lords, Duke Cheng did not come out to meet them, the Classic did not regard this as a disgrace to Lu, showing that equal rites are not performed with a child. The heir goes to court to receive rank and command, yet wears a scholar's clothes; why? Out of humility, not daring to decide alone. So the Book of Odes says: "(Here the base text has a rare character that was lost in transcription.)" This speaks of the heir's first outing.

天子大斂之後稱王者，明士不可一日無君也。故《尚書》曰：“王麻冕黼裳。”此斂之後也。何以知王從死後加王也？以尚書言迎子劉。不言迎王。王者既殯而即繼體之位何？緣民臣之心不可一日無君，故先君不可得見則後君繼體矣。《尚書》曰：“再拜興對，乃受銅。”明為繼體君也。緣始終之義，一年不可有二君也。故《尚書》曰：“王釋冕喪服。”吉冕受銅稱王，以接諸侯，明己繼體為君也。釋冕藏銅，反喪，明未稱王以統事也。不曠年無君，故逾年乃即位改元，名元年，年以紀事，君名其事矣，而未發號令也。何以言逾年即位謂改元位？《春秋傳》曰：“以諸侯逾年即位，亦知，天子逾年即位也。”《春秋》曰：“元年春王正月，公即位。”改元位也。王者改元年，即事天地；諸侯改元，即事社稷。《王制》曰：“夫喪三年不祭，唯祭天地社稷，為越紼而行事。”《春秋傳》曰“天子三年然後稱王”者，謂稱王統事發號令也。《尚書》曰“高宗諒陰三年”是也。《論語》曰：“君薨，百官總己聽於冢宰三年。”緣孝子之心，則三年不當也，故三年除喪，乃即位統事。即位踐阼為主，南面朝臣下稱王，以發號令也。故天子、諸侯凡三年即位，終始之義乃備，所以諒陰三年，卒孝子之道。故《論語》曰：“古之人皆然，君薨，百官總己聽於冢宰三年。”所以聽於冢宰三年者何？以為冢宰職在制國之用，是以由之也，故《王制》曰：“大冢宰制國用。”所以名之為冢宰何？冢者，大也；宰者，制也；大制事也。故《王度記》曰：“天子冢宰一人，爵祿如天子之大夫。”或曰冢宰視卿，《周官》所云也。

After the great shrouding, the Son of Heaven is called king, showing that the scholars and people cannot be without a ruler for a day. So the Book of Documents says: "The king wore a hemp cap and robe with axe patterns." This is after the great shrouding. How do we know that "king" is added after a person's death? Because the Book of Documents says "welcome Zi Liu," not "welcome the king." After the true king has been laid in state, he ascends to the position of succeeding to the line; why? It follows the hearts of ministers and people, that they cannot be without a ruler for a day; the former ruler can no longer be seen, so the later ruler succeeds to the line. The Book of Documents says: "Bowing twice, he rose and answered, and then received the tong (tong refers to the bronze token of trust)." This shows that he is already the ruler who has succeeded. It follows the principle of ending and beginning: within one year there cannot be two rulers. So the Book of Documents says: "The king took off the cap and changed into mourning clothes." Wearing the auspicious cap, receiving the tong and being called king, and using it to receive the feudal lords, shows that he is already the ruler who has succeeded; taking off the cap, putting away the tong and returning to the mourning, shows that he has not yet been called king to manage government. Also the year cannot be left empty without a ruler, so he ascends the throne after the new year and changes the era name, calling it the first year; a year is used to record events, and the ruler fixes the names of these matters but has not yet issued orders. How do we say that ascending the throne after the new year is the position of changing the era? The Spring and Autumn commentary says: "From the feudal lords ascending after the new year, we can also know that the Son of Heaven ascends after the new year." The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "In the first year, in spring, in the first month of the king, the Duke ascended the throne." This is the position of changing the era. When a true king changes the era, he serves Heaven and Earth; when a feudal lord changes the era, he serves the altars of earth and grain. The Royal Regulations says: "In the three years of mourning, one does not sacrifice, except for sacrifices to Heaven and Earth and the altars of earth and grain, which one does by stepping over the mourning cord." The Spring and Autumn commentary says "the Son of Heaven is called king only after three years," meaning called king to manage government and issue orders. The Book of Documents says "Gaozong kept silent in mourning for three years," which is this. The Analects says: "When the ruler dies, the hundred officials each manage their own duties and take orders from the prime minister for three years." Following the filial son's heart, in these three years he should not govern the state, so after the three years' mourning is over, he ascends the throne and takes up affairs. In ascending the throne, stepping up the east steps as host, facing south to receive ministers' audience and being called king, he uses it to issue orders. So the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords alike truly ascend the throne only when three years are full, and so the principle of ending and beginning is complete; therefore silence in mourning for three years completes the filial son's way. So the Analects says: "The ancients were all like this: when the ruler dies, the hundred officials each manage their own duties and take orders from the prime minister for three years." Why take orders from the prime minister for three years? Because the prime minister's duty is to set the state's expenditures, so he presides. The Royal Regulations says: "The Grand Prime Minister sets the state's expenditures." Why is he called prime minister (zhong zai)? "Zhong" means great, and "zai" means to regulate, meaning to regulate government affairs on a large scale. So the Wangdu ji says: "The Son of Heaven's prime minister is one person, with salary and rank like the Son of Heaven's grandees." Another account: the prime minister is comparable to a minister, as stated in the Zhou Offices.

帝王者何？號也。號者，功之表也，所以表功明德，號令臣下者也。德合天地者稱帝，仁義合者稱王，別優劣也。《禮記?諡法》曰：“德象天地稱帝，仁義所在稱王。”帝者天號，王者五行之稱也。皇者何謂也？亦號也。皇，君也，美也，大也。天之總，美大稱也，時質，故總之也。號之為皇者，煌煌人莫違也。煩一夫、擾一士以勞天下不為皇也，不擾匹夫匹婦故為皇。故黃金棄于山，珠玉捐於淵，巖居穴處，衣皮毛，飲泉液，吮露英，虛無寥廓，與天地通靈也。號言為帝者何？帝者，諦也，象可承也；王者，往也，天下所歸往。《鉤命決》曰：“三皇步，五帝趨，三王馳，五伯騖。”

What are emperors and kings? They are hao (titles that proclaim merit and virtue, used to command ministers). A title is a sign of achievement, used to commend merit, make virtue clear and command ministers. One whose virtue matches heaven and earth is called di (emperor), one whose humaneness and righteousness match is called wang (king), to distinguish the better from the worse. The posthumous-name rules recorded in the Book of Rites say: "One whose virtue is like heaven and earth is called di; one in whom humaneness and righteousness reside is called wang." Di is the name of Heaven, and wang is the designation in the sense of the Five Phases. What is huang (sovereign)? It is also a title. "Huang" means ruler, means beautiful, means great; it is a general and beautiful, great title for Heaven; at that time customs were plain, so they were called by this comprehensive name. Being called huang means brilliance and splendor, such that no one dares to disobey. To trouble a single commoner or disturb a single scholar so as to burden the world means one cannot be called huang; not disturbing commoner men and women is why one is huang. Therefore gold was left in the mountains and pearls and jade thrown into the depths, they lived in caves, wore furs, drank from springs and sipped the blossoms of dew, empty and vast, in communion with heaven and earth. Why is one called di? "Di" means to examine carefully, like something that can be received and passed on; "wang" means to go toward, the one the world goes toward. The Gouming jue says: "The Three Sovereigns walked slowly, the Five Emperors walked with small quick steps, the Three Kings ran, and the Five Hegemons sprinted."

或稱天子，或稱帝王何？以為接上稱天子者，明以爵事天也；接下稱帝王者，得號天下至尊言稱，以號令臣下也。故《尚書》曰：“‘諮四嶽’，曰：‘裕汝眾’。”或有一人。王者自謂一人者，謙也，欲言巳材能當一人耳。故《論語》曰：“百姓有過，在予一人。”臣謂之一人何？亦所以尊王者也。以天下之大、四海之內，所共尊者一人耳。故《尚書》曰：“不施予一人。”或稱朕何？亦王者之謙也。朕，我也。或稱予者，予亦我也。不以尊稱自也，但自我皆謙。

Sometimes the ruler is called Son of Heaven and sometimes emperor or king; why? In dealings with those above he is called Son of Heaven, showing that he serves Heaven with his rank; in dealings with those below he is called emperor or king, taking the title of supreme honor for commanding the world, used to command ministers. So the Book of Documents says: "I consult the Four Peaks," and also says: "I treat you all with generosity." There are also those who call themselves "the One Man." A true king calling himself the One Man is humility, wishing to say that his ability amounts to only one person. So the Analects says: "If the people have faults, the responsibility is on me, the One Man." Ministers call him "the One Man"; why? This too is to honor the true king. Within the greatness of the world and the four seas, only one person is revered in common. So the Book of Documents says: "Do not add it to me, the One Man." Sometimes he says "zhen," which is also the true king's humble term. "Zhen" means I. Sometimes he says "yu," and "yu" also means I. Not using an honorific to refer to himself but only himself is always humility.

或稱君子何？道德之稱也。君之為言群也；子者，丈夫之通稱也。故《孝經》曰：“君子之教以孝也，下言敬天下之為人父者也。”何以言知其通稱也，以天子至於民。故《詩》云：“凱弟君子，民之父母。”《論語》云：“君子哉若人。”此謂弟子。弟子者，民也。

Sometimes the ruler is called junzi (gentleman); why? This is a title of moral character. "Jun" means able to bring people together; "zi" is the general term for an adult man. So the Classic of Filial Piety says: "The gentleman teaches by filial piety," and goes on to say "respecting all the world's fathers." How do we know this is a general term? From the Son of Heaven down to the people it is used so. So the Book of Odes says: "The gentle and easygoing gentleman is the father and mother of the people." The Analects says: "This man is truly a gentleman." This speaks of a disciple. A disciple means the people.

三皇者，何謂也？謂伏羲、神農、燧人也。或曰伏羲、神農、祝融也。《禮》曰：“伏羲、神農、祝融，三皇也。”謂之伏羲者何。古之時未有三綱、六紀，民人但知其母，不知其父，能覆前而不能覆後，臥之訁去訁去，起之吁吁，飢即求食，飽即棄餘，茹毛飲血而衣皮葦。於是伏羲仰觀象於天，俯察法於地，因夫婦正五行，始定人道，畫八卦以治下。治下伏而化之，故謂之伏羲也。謂之神農何？古之人民，皆食禽獸肉，至於神農，人民眾多，禽獸不足。於是神農因天之時，分地之利，制耒耜，教民農作。神而化之，使民宜之，故謂之神農也。謂之燧人何？鑽木燧取火，教民熟食，養人利性，避臭去毒，謂之燧人也。謂之祝融何？祝者，屬也；融者，續也。言能屬續三皇之道而行之，故謂祝融也。

Who are the Three Sovereigns? They are Fuxi, Shennong and Suiren. Another view: Fuxi, Shennong and Zhurong. The Rites say: "Fuxi, Shennong and Zhurong are the Three Sovereigns." Why is he called Fuxi? In high antiquity there were not yet the Three Bonds and the Six Relations, and people knew only their mothers and did not know their fathers; they could look to what was before them and not to what was behind; when they lay down they gaped and breathed out, and when they rose they panted (the base text has a split-up form of the character "qu" here, an error); when hungry they sought food, and when full they threw away the rest, eating hair and drinking blood, and wearing animal skins and reeds. Then Fuxi looked up and observed the images in the heavens, looked down and took models from the earth, and on the basis of husband and wife set the Five Phases in order, began to establish the human way, and drew the eight trigrams to govern the people below. The people believed and were transformed, so he is called Fuxi. Why is he called Shennong? In high antiquity people all ate the flesh of birds and beasts; by the time of Shennong the people had multiplied and birds and beasts were not enough. So Shennong followed the seasons of Heaven, divided the advantages of the earth, made the plow, and taught the people to farm. He transformed them in a divine way so that each of the people got what suited them, and so he is called Shennong. Why is he called Suiren? He drilled wood to get fire and taught the people to eat cooked food, nurturing people and easing their temperaments, avoiding rankness and removing poison, and so he is called Suiren. Why is he called Zhurong? "Zhu" means to link, and "rong" means to continue. It says that he could link and continue the Way of the Three Sovereigns and put it into practice, and so he is called Zhurong.

五帝者，何謂也？《禮》曰：黃帝、顓頊、帝嚳、帝堯、帝舜，五帝也。《易》曰：“黃帝、堯舜、氏作。”《書》曰：“帝堯、帝舜。”黃者中和之色，自然之姓，萬世不易。黃帝始作制度，得其中和，萬世常存，故稱黃帝也。謂之顓頊何？顓者，專也；頊者，正也；能專正天人之道，故謂之顓頊也。謂之帝嚳者何也？嚳者，極也，言其能施行窮極道德也。謂之堯者何？堯猶也，至高之貌，清妙高遠，優遊博衍，眾聖之主，百王之長也。謂之舜者何？舜猶舛舛也，言能推信堯道而行之。

Who are the Five Emperors? The Rites say: the Yellow Emperor, Zhuanxu, Emperor Ku, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun are the Five Emperors. The Changes say: "The Yellow Emperor, Yao and Shun arose." The Documents say: "Emperor Yao, Emperor Shun." Yellow is the color of the middle and harmony, a natural surname that does not change for ten thousand generations. The Yellow Emperor first established institutions, attained the middle and harmony within them, which endure for ten thousand generations, and so he is called the Yellow Emperor. Why is he called Zhuanxu? "Zhuan" means single-minded and "xu" means upright; he could focus on and set right the Way of Heaven and man, and so he is called Zhuanxu. And why Emperor Ku? "Ku" means the utmost, saying that he could carry out virtue to its utmost. And why Yao? Yao is like (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription), the appearance of the utmost height, clear, subtle, lofty and distant, calm and broad, the covenant leader of the sages and the chief of the hundred kings. And why Shun? Shun is like "chuan chuan," saying he could extend, keep faith with and carry out Yao's Way.

三王者，何謂也？夏、殷、周也。故《禮?士冠經》曰：“周弁、殷鼾、夏收，三王共皮弁也。”所以有夏殷周號何，以為王者受命，必立天下之美號以表功自克，明易姓為子孫制也。夏、殷、周者，有天下之大號也。百王同天下，無以相別，改制天子之大禮號，以自別於前，所以表著已之功業也。必改號者，所以明天命巳著，欲顯揚巳於天下也。己復襲先王之號與繼體守文之君，無以異也，不顯不明，非天意也。故受命王者必擇天下美號，表著已之功業，明當致施是也。所以預自表克於前也。

Who are the Three Kings? Xia, Yin and Zhou. So the Rites, in the Capping of Scholars, say: "The Zhou used the bian cap, the Yin used the xu cap, the Xia used the shou cap, and the Three Kings all shared the leather cap." (The base text has "han" for "xu," an error.) Why are there these designations Xia, Yin and Zhou? Because when a king receives the mandate, he must establish a fine name for the world to display his achievements and discipline himself, to show that he has changed the surname and set institutions for his descendants. Xia, Yin and Zhou are the great names for holding the world. A hundred kings are together in this world, and there is no way to tell them apart, so they change and fix the great ritual name of the Son of Heaven in order to distinguish themselves from earlier ages, and thereby display their own achievements. A change of name is necessary to show that the mandate of Heaven is already manifest and that one is to be made known in the world. If one again took over the name of a former king, there would be no difference from a ruler who continues the line and keeps the statutes, and it would be neither conspicuous nor clear, and not the will of Heaven. So a king who receives the mandate must choose a fine name of the world to display his achievements and show that he ought to act thus. This is displaying oneself beforehand and restraining oneself against earlier ages.

帝王者居天下之尊號也。所以差優號令臣下。諡者行之跡也。所以別於後代。著善惡。重無窮，無自推觀施後世皆以勸善著戒惡。明不勉也，不以姓為號何？姓者，一定之稱也，尊卑所同也。諸侯各稱一國之號而有百姓矣，天子至尊，即備有天下之號，而兼萬國矣。夏者，大也，明當守持大道。殷者，中也，明當為中和之道也。聞也，見也，謂當道著見中和之為也。周者，至也，密也，道德周密，無所不至也。何以知即政立號也？《詩》云：“命此文王，於周於京。”此改號為周，易邑為京也。《春秋傳》曰：“王者受命而王，必擇天下之美號以自稱也。”五帝無有天下之號何？五帝德大能禪，以民為子，成於天下，無為立號也。或曰：唐、虞皆號也。唐，蕩蕩也，蕩蕩者，道德至大之貌也。虞者，樂也，言天下有道，人皆樂也。故《論語》曰：“唐、虞之際。”帝嚳有天下，號高辛，顓頊有天下。號曰高陽，黃帝有天號曰自然者，獨宏大道德也。高陽者，陽猶明也，道德高明也。高辛者，道德大信也。

"Emperor" and "king" are titles of the one who dwells in the highest honor of the world, used to distinguish the better from the worse and to command ministers. The posthumous name is a trace of one's conduct, used to distinguish him from later ages, to show good and evil, and to be serious without end, so that later people can look back on it and apply it in later ages, all to encourage good and to make evil plain as a warning. It shows that one cannot but strive. Why is the surname not used as a title? The surname is a fixed designation, shared by high and low. The feudal lords each call themselves by the title of one state, and so there are the hundred surnames; the Son of Heaven is of the highest honor, and so possesses the title of the whole world, holding all the ten thousand states. Xia means great, showing that one should keep the great Way. Yin means the middle, showing that one should practice the Way of the middle and harmony; it also means to hear and to see, saying that the actions of the middle and harmony should be made conspicuous and visible. Zhou means to reach, to be thorough, with virtue complete and reaching everywhere. How do we know that on taking office one establishes a title? The Odes say: "Heaven's mandate on this King Wen, in Zhou, in the capital." This is changing the title to Zhou and the city to Jing. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "A king who receives the mandate and calls himself king must choose a fine name of the world to call himself." The Five Emperors had no title of the world; why? The Five Emperors' virtue was great and they could abdicate, treating the people as sons and accomplishing things in the world, so there was no need to set up a separate title. Another view: Tang and Yu were both titles. Tang means vast, and vast is the look of utmost greatness of virtue. Yu means joy, saying that when the world has the Way, everyone is at ease and joyful. So the Analects says: "the age of Tang and Yu." Emperor Ku held the world with the title Gaoxin; Zhuanxu held the world with the title Gaoyang; the Yellow Emperor held the world with the title Ziran (natural), singularly expansive in virtue. Gaoyang: "yang" means bright, and the virtue is lofty and bright. Gaoxin: the virtue is of great good faith.

五霸者，何謂也？昆吾氏、大彭氏、豕韋氏、齊桓公、晉文公也。昔三王之道衰，而五霸存其政，率諸侯朝天子，正天下之化，興復中國，攘除夷狄，故謂之霸也。昔昆吾氏，霸於夏者也；大彭氏、豕韋氏，霸於殷者也；齊桓、晉文，霸於周者也。或曰：五霸，謂齊桓公、晉文公、秦穆公、楚莊王、吳王闔閭也。霸者，伯也，行方伯之職，會諸侯，朝天子，不失人臣之義，故聖人與之。非明王之張法。霸猶迫也，把也，迫脅諸侯，把持其政。《論語》曰：“管仲相桓公，霸諸侯。”《春秋》曰：“公朝於王所。”於是時晉文之霸。《尚書》曰：“邦之榮懷，亦尚一人之慶。”知秦穆之霸也。楚勝鄭而不告，從而攻之，又令還師，而佚晉寇。圍宋，宋因而與之平，引師而去。知楚莊之霸也。蔡侯無罪而拘於楚，吳有憂中國心，興師伐楚，諸侯莫敢不至。知吳之霸也。或曰：五霸，謂齊桓公、晉文公、秦穆公、宋襄公、楚莊王也。宋襄伐齊，亂齊桓公，不擒二毛，不鼓不成烈。《春秋傳》曰：“雖文王之戰不是過。”知其霸也。

Who are the Five Hegemons? The house of Kunwu, the house of Dapeng, the house of Shiwei, Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin. In the past, when the Way of the Three Kings had declined, the Five Hegemons preserved that system of government and teaching, led the feudal lords to court the Son of Heaven, set right the teaching of the world, revived the Central States, and drove out the barbarians, so they are called hegemons. In the past the house of Kunwu were hegemons under Xia; the houses of Dapeng and Shiwei were hegemons under Yin; Huan of Qi and Wen of Jin were hegemons under Zhou. Another view: the Five Hegemons were Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, Duke Mu of Qin, King Zhuang of Chu and King Helu of Wu. "Ba" is "bo" (chief), exercising the duty of a regional chief, assembling the feudal lords and paying court to the Son of Heaven without losing the duty of a minister, so the sages approved. But this is not the regular law laid down by clear-sighted kings. "Ba" is also like "po" (to compel) and "ba" (to hold): compelling the feudal lords and holding their government. The Analects says: "Guan Zhong assisted Duke Huan and made him hegemon of the feudal lords." The Spring and Autumn says: "The duke paid court at the king's place." At that time it was just when Wen of Jin was hegemon. The Documents say: "The glory and peace of the states still depend on the good fortune of one man." From this we know the hegemony of Mu of Qin. When Chu defeated Zheng but did not pursue it hard, then went to attack again, and also ordered the army to return, letting off the troops of Jin; when it besieged Song, Song made peace with it for this reason, and he led his army away. From this we know the hegemony of Zhuang of Chu. The Marquis of Cai was without fault but was detained by Chu, and Wu had a heart concerned for the Central Plain and raised troops to attack Chu, and none of the feudal lords dared not come. From this we know the hegemony of Wu. There is yet another view: the Five Hegemons were Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, Duke Mu of Qin, Duke Xiang of Song and King Zhuang of Chu. Duke Xiang of Song attacked Qi in the disorder after the death of Duke Huan of Qi; he did not capture the grey-haired and did not beat the drums to attack an army not yet drawn up in ranks. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Even King Wen's battles were no more than this." From this we know his hegemony.

伯、子、男臣子於其國中，褒其君為公。王者臣子獨不得襄其君謂之為帝何？以為諸侯有會聚之事，相朝聘之道。或稱公而尊，或稱伯、子、男而卑。為交接之時，不私其臣子之義，心俱欲尊其君父，故皆令臣子得稱其君為公也。帝、王異時，無會同之義，故無為同也。何以諸侯德公齊侯桓公。《尚書》曰：“公曰：‘嗟。’”秦伯也。《詩》云：“覃公惟私。”覃子也。《春秋》曰：“葬皆繆公”，許男也。《禮?大射經》曰：“則擇獲。”大射者，諸侯之禮也，伯、子、男皆在也。

Subjects of earls, viscounts and barons, within their own states, call their lords "duke" in praise. Only a king's subjects cannot call their own lord "emperor" in praise; why? Because feudal lords have gatherings and the principle of visiting one another, and some are called duke and honored while some are called earl, viscount or baron and are lower. At the time of their dealings, the ministers' intent in honoring their lords is not treated as a private duty, and in their hearts all want to honor their own lord and father, so they all let their ministers call their own lords "duke." The emperor and the king are of different ages and have no principle of meeting together, so there is no need to seek sameness. Among feudal lords called duke, for example, Duke Huan, Marquis of Qi. The Documents say: "The duke said: 'Alas.'" That was the Earl of Qin. The Odes say: "The Duke of Tan only attends to his private house." Tan was a viscount. The Spring and Autumn says: "buried Duke Mu of Xu," and Xu was a baron. The Rites, in the Great Archery Classic, say: "then select the one who retrieves." Great archery is a ritual of feudal lords, and earls, viscounts and barons are all included in it.

諡者何也？諡之為言引也，引烈行之跡也。所以進勸成德，使上務節也。故《禮?特牲》曰：“古者生無爵，死無諡。”此言生有爵，死當有諡也。死乃諡之何？言人行終始不能若一，故據其終始，後可知也。士冠經曰：“死而諡之。今也所以臨葬而諡之何？因眾會，欲顯揚之也。故《春秋》曰：“公之喪自乾侯。”昭公死於晉乾侯之地，數月歸，至急，當未有諡也。《春秋》曰：“丁巳葬，戊午日下側，乃克葬。”明祖載而有諡也。

What is a posthumous name? "Shi" means to draw out, to draw out traces of resolute conduct, to advance, encourage and complete virtue, and to make those above concentrate on integrity. So the Rites, in the Sacrifice of a Single Animal, say: "In ancient times, there was no rank while alive and no posthumous name after death." This means: if one had rank while alive, one should have a posthumous name after death. Why wait until death to give a name? It says that a person's conduct cannot be consistent from beginning to end, so it is on the basis of his end and beginning that it can be known afterward. The Capping of Scholars classic says: "Only after death is he given a name." Now why is the name given only at the time of burial? Because the multitude gather and one makes use of the occasion to display him. So the Spring and Autumn says: "The duke's funeral returned from Qianhou." Duke Zhao died at Qianhou in Jin, and returned after several months, the matter being urgent, and at the time there was not yet a posthumous name. The Spring and Autumn says: "He was buried on dingsi, and on wuwu in the afternoon the burial was completed." This shows that at the ancestral rite and the carrying of the coffin there already was a posthumous name.

黃帝，先黃后帝何？古者順死生之稱。各持行合而言之。美者在上，黃帝始製法度。得道之中，萬世不易。名黃自然也，後世雖聖，莫能與同也。後世得與天同，亦得稱帝，不能立製作之時，故不得復黃也。諡，或一言，或兩言何？文者，以一言為諡；質者，以兩言為諡。故尚書曰：高宗殷宗也。湯死後稱成湯，以兩言為諡也。號無質文、諡有質文何？號者，始也，為本，故不可變也。周巳後用意，尤文以為本。生時號令善，故有善諡，故舍文武王也。合言之，則上其諡，明別善惡，所以勸人為善、戒人為惡也。

Why does the Yellow Emperor say "Huang" first and "Di" second? In ancient times, following the names of death and life, each was joined together on the basis of his conduct, with the fine placed above. The Yellow Emperor first established the laws and obtained the middle of the Way, unchanged for ten thousand generations. The name "Huang" is so of itself, and even later sages cannot be the same as him. Later ones who can be the same as Heaven may also be called "Di," but cannot be in an age of founding and making, so they may no longer be called "Huang." A posthumous name sometimes has one character and sometimes two; why? An age of refinement used one character for the posthumous name, and an age of substance used two characters. So the Documents say Gaozong, who was an ancestor of Yin; after Tang died he was called Cheng Tang, using two characters as his posthumous name. Titles have no distinction between substance and refinement, yet posthumous names do; why? The title is the beginning and the root, so it cannot be changed. After the Zhou, with more thought, especially taking refinement as the root. When living, one's orders were good, so there are good posthumous names, and so they discard the combined names like King Wen and King Wu. When spoken together, the posthumous name is placed above, to distinguish good and bad, to encourage good and warn against evil.

帝者，天號也，以為堯猶諡，顧上世質直，死後以其名為號耳。所以諡之為堯何？為諡有七十二品。《禮?記諡法》曰：“翼善傳聖諡曰堯，仁聖盛明諡曰舜，慈惠愛民諡曰文，強理直諡曰武。”

"Di" is the name of Heaven. As for Yao, it is also like a posthumous name; but in the simple earlier age, after death they used his name as the title. Why was he given the posthumous name Yao? Because posthumous names have seventy-two grades. The rules for posthumous names recorded in the Book of Rites say: "One who assists the good Way and passes on sage virtue is called Yao; one who is benevolent, sage and brilliant is called Shun; one who is kind and loving to the people is called Wen; one who is strong, resolute and upright is called Wu."

天子崩，臣下至南郊諡之者何？以為人臣之義，莫不欲褒大其君，掩惡揚善者也。故之南郊，明不得欺天也。故《曾子問》：“孔子曰：天子崩，臣下之南郊，告諡之。”

When the Son of Heaven dies, the ministers go to the southern suburb to present the posthumous name; why? Because in the duty of a minister there is none who does not want to praise and magnify the ruler, to hide his faults and show his virtue. So they go to the southern suburb to show that Heaven cannot be deceived. So Confucius says in Zengzi Asks: "When the Son of Heaven dies, the ministers go to the southern suburb, announce it and present the posthumous name."

諸侯薨，世子赴告天子，天子遣大夫會其葬而諡之何？幼不誄長，賤不誄貴，諸侯相誄，非禮也。臣當受諡於君也。

When a feudal lord dies, the heir goes to announce it to the Son of Heaven, and the Son of Heaven sends a grand master to attend the burial and give him a posthumous name; why? The young do not write eulogies for the old, and the lowly do not write eulogies for the honored; for feudal lords to write eulogies for one another is not in accord with ritual. A minister should receive his posthumous name from his lord.

卿大夫老歸死有諡何？諡者，別尊卑、彰有德也。卿大夫歸，無過，猶有祿位，故有諡也。

A minister or grand master who retires home in old age has a posthumous name after death; why? The posthumous name is used to distinguish high and low and to make virtue conspicuous. When a minister or grand master retires, being without fault and still having his salary and position, he has a posthumous name.

夫人無諡者何？無爵故無諡。或曰：夫人有諡。夫人一國之母，修閨門之內，群下亦化之，故設諡以彰其善惡。《春秋傳》曰：“葬宗恭姬。”《傳》曰：“稱諡何？賢也。”《傳》曰：“哀姜者何？莊公夫人也。”卿大夫妻無諡何？賤也。八妾所以無諡何？卑賤無所能務，猶士卑小，不得有諡也。太子夫人無諡何？本婦人隨夫，太子無諡，其夫人不得有諡也。天子太子元士也。士無諡，知太子亦無諡也。附庸所以無諡何？卑小無爵也。《王制》曰：“爵祿凡五等。”附庸本非爵也。

A wife has no posthumous name; why? She has no rank, so she has no posthumous name. Another view: a wife does have a posthumous name. A wife is the mother of a state, who tends to the inner chambers, and those below her are transformed, so a posthumous name is set up to make her good and bad conduct plain. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Buried Gong Ji." The Commentary says: "Why is the posthumous name used? Because she was worthy." The Commentary says: "Who was Ai Jiang? She was Duke Zhuang's wife." The wives of ministers and grand masters have no posthumous name; why? Because they are lowly. The eight concubines have no posthumous name because they are lowly and have nothing to devote themselves to, just as scholars are low and small and may not have posthumous names. The wife of a crown prince has no posthumous name; why? A woman follows her husband, and since the crown prince has no posthumous name, his wife may not have one. The Son of Heaven's crown prince is a primary scholar. Scholars have no posthumous name, from which we know the crown prince has none either. Dependent states have no posthumous name because they are low and small and have no rank. The Royal Regulations say: "Ranks and salaries are five grades in all." Dependent states are not originally a rank.

後夫人於何所諡之？以為於朝廷。朝廷本所以治政之處，臣子共審諡，白之於君，然後加之。婦人大夫，故但白君而已。何以知不之南郊也？婦人本無外事，何為於郊也？《禮?曾子問》曰：“唯天子稱天以誅之。”唯者，獨也，明天子獨於南郊耳。

Where are the posthumous names of the queen and wives presented? It is held to be at court. The court is where affairs of government are managed; the ministers jointly examine the posthumous name, report it to the ruler, and then add it. Women are compared to grand masters, so only the ruler is informed. How do we know it is not at the southern suburb? A woman has no business at the outer court to begin with, so why go to the suburb? The Book of Rites, in Zengzi Asks, says: "Only the Son of Heaven invokes Heaven to give him his posthumous name." "Wei" means only, showing that only the Son of Heaven is at the southern suburb.

顯號諡何法？法曰未出而明。已入有餘光也。

What do the illustrious titles and posthumous names model themselves on? They model on the sun, which is bright before it has risen, and still has remaining light after it has set.

五祀者，何謂也？謂門、戶、井、灶、中ニ也。所以祭何？人之所處出入、所飲食，故為神而祭之。何以知五祀謂門、戶、井、灶、中ニ也？《月令》曰：“其祀戶。”又曰：“其祀灶。”“其祀中ニ。”“其祀門。”“其祀井。”

What are the Five Household Sacrifices? They are the gate, the door, the well, the stove and the central courtyard (the base text has a mistaken character for "zhong liu," central courtyard). Why are they sacrificed to? Because these are the places where people dwell, go in and out, and eat and drink, and so they are sacrificed to as spirits. How do we know the Five Household Sacrifices are the gate, door, well, stove and central courtyard? The Monthly Ordinances say: "What is sacrificed to is the door." It also says: "What is sacrificed to is the stove." "What is sacrificed to is the central courtyard." "What is sacrificed to is the gate." "What is sacrificed to is the well."

獨大夫已上得祭之何？士者，位卑祿薄，但祭其先祖耳。《禮》曰：“天子祭天地，諸侯祭山川，卿、大夫祭五祀，士祭其祖。”《曲禮》曰：“天地四時山川五祀，歲遍；諸侯方祀，山川五祀，歲遍；卿大夫祭五祀；士祭其先。非所當祭而祭之名曰淫祀。淫祀無福。”

Only grand masters and above may sacrifice to them; why? Scholars are of low rank with small salaries, and only sacrifice to their own ancestors. The Rites say: "The Son of Heaven sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, the feudal lords sacrifice to the mountains and rivers, ministers and grand masters sacrifice to the five household spirits, and scholars sacrifice to their own ancestors." The Quli says: "Heaven and Earth, the four seasons, mountains and rivers and the five household spirits are sacrificed to in a full round each year; the feudal lords sacrifice to their own region, mountains and rivers and the five household spirits in a full round each year; ministers and grand masters sacrifice to the five household spirits; scholars sacrifice to their own forebears. To sacrifice to what should not be sacrificed to is called an excessive sacrifice. Excessive sacrifice brings no blessing."

祭五祀所以歲一遍何？順五行也。故春即祭戶。戶者，人所出入，亦春萬物始觸戶而出也。夏祭灶者，火之主人，所以自養也，夏亦火王，長養萬物。秋祭門。門以閉藏自固也，秋亦萬物成熟，內備自守也。冬祭井。井者，水之生藏任地中，冬亦水王，萬物伏藏。六月祭中ニ。中ニ者，象土在中央也，六月亦土王也。故《月令》春言“其祀戶，祭先脾”，夏言“其祀灶，祭先肺”，秋言“其祀門，祭先肝”，冬言“其祀井，祭先腎”，中央言“其祀中ニ，祭先心。”春祀戶，祭所以時先脾者何？脾者，土也，春木王煞土，故以所勝祭之也；是冬腎，六月心，非所勝也，以祭何？以為土位在中央，至尊，故祭以心。心者，藏之尊者。水最卑，不得食其所勝。

Why is each of the Five Household Sacrifices offered once a year? Following the Five Phases. So in spring they sacrifice to the door. The door is where people go out and in, and in spring the myriad things also begin to burst forth through the door. In summer they sacrifice to the stove: the stove is the master of fire and is used to nourish oneself, and in summer fire also holds sway, nurturing the myriad things. In autumn they sacrifice to the gate: the gate is used to close, store and strengthen oneself, and in autumn the myriad things also ripen and are stored within, guarding themselves. In winter they sacrifice to the well: the well is where water arises, hides and rests in the earth, and in winter water also holds sway and the myriad things lie hidden. In the sixth month they sacrifice to the central courtyard: the central courtyard is like earth in the center, and in the sixth month earth also holds sway. So the Monthly Ordinances say in spring "what is sacrificed to is the door, and at the sacrifice the spleen is offered first," in summer "what is sacrificed to is the stove, and at the sacrifice the lungs are offered first," in autumn "what is sacrificed to is the gate, and at the sacrifice the liver is offered first," in winter "what is sacrificed to is the well, and at the sacrifice the kidneys are offered first," and in the center "what is sacrificed to is the central courtyard, and at the sacrifice the heart is offered first." In the spring sacrifice to the door, why is the spleen offered first? The spleen belongs to earth, and in spring wood holds sway and overcomes earth, so what it overcomes is used for the sacrifice. As for using kidneys in winter and heart in the sixth month, these are not what is overcome; why are they also offered thus? Because the earth position is in the center and is the most honored, so the heart is used for sacrifice. The heart is the most honored of the five viscera. Water is the lowest, and may not eat what it overcomes.

祭五祀，天子、諸侯以牛，卿、大夫以羊，因四時祭牲也。一說：戶以羊，灶以雞，中ニ以豚，門以犬，井以豕。或曰：中ニ用牛，餘不得用豚，井以魚。

In sacrificing to the Five Household Spirits, the Son of Heaven and feudal lords use an ox, and ministers and grand masters use a sheep, which accords with the animals used in the regular sacrifices of the four seasons. One view: for the door use a sheep, for the stove a chicken, for the central courtyard a piglet, for the gate a dog, for the well a pig. Another view: for the central courtyard use an ox, the others may not use a piglet, and for the well use fish.

王者所以有社稷何？為天下求福報功。人非土不立，非谷不食。土地廣博，不可遍敬也；五穀眾多，不可一一祭也。故封土立社，示有土尊。稷，五穀之長，故封稷而祭之也。尚書曰：乃社於新邑孝經曰。保其社稷而和其民人。蓋諸侯之孝也。稷者，得陰陽中和之氣，而用尤多，故為長也。

The reason a king has the she and ji (the spirits of soil and of grain) is to seek blessing for the world and repay merit. People cannot stand without soil and cannot eat without grain. The earth is vast and it is not possible to pay reverence everywhere; the five grains are of many kinds and it is not possible to sacrifice to them one by one. So earth is heaped up and an altar of soil is set up to show the dignity of having land. Ji is the chief of the five grains, so ji is enfeoffed and sacrificed to. The Documents say: "Then they set up the altar of the soil in the new city." The Classic of Filial Piety says: "Preserve the altars of the state, and harmonize the people." This is probably the filial piety of the feudal lords. Ji receives the breath of yin and yang in harmony and is used all the more, and so it is the chief.

歲再祭何？春求谷之義也。故《月令》，仲春之月，擇元日命人社。”《援神契》曰：“仲春獲禾，報社祭稷。”

Why is it sacrificed to twice a year? Spring is the idea of seeking grain. So the Monthly Ordinances say: in the second month of spring, choose an auspicious day and order the people to sacrifice to the altar of the soil. The Yuanshen Qi says: "In mid-spring they harvest the grain, and repay with sacrifice to the she and ji."

以三牲何？重功故也。《尚書》曰：“乃社於新邑，羊一、牛一、豕一。”《王制》曰：“天子社稷皆大牢，諸侯社稷皆少牢。”宗廟俱大牢，社稷獨少牢何？宗廟大牢，所以廣孝道也。社稷為報功，諸侯一國，所報者少故也。

Why are three animals used? Because the merit is valued. The Documents say: "Then they set up the altar of the soil in the new city, one sheep, one ox, one pig." The Royal Regulations say: "For the Son of Heaven's she and ji both use the grand sacrifice, and for the feudal lords' she and ji both use the lesser sacrifice." The ancestral temples all use the full sacrifice, but the she and ji alone use the lesser sacrifice; why? The ancestral temple uses the grand sacrifice in order to extend filial piety; the she and ji are repaying merit, and a feudal lord has only one state, so what is repaid is less, and so it is so.

王者、諸侯俱兩社何？俱有土之君，《禮記?三正記》曰：“王者二社，為天下立禮曰太社，自為立社曰王社；諸侯為百姓立社曰國社，自為立社曰侯社。太社為天下報功，王社為京師報功，太社尊於王社。土地故兩報之。

Kings and feudal lords both have two altars of the soil; why? Because both are rulers who hold land. The Book of Rites, in the Record of the Three Rectifications, says: "A king has two altars of the soil: the one set up for the world is called the Grand She, and the one set up for himself is called the King's She; a feudal lord's, set up for the common people, is called the State She, and the one set up for himself is called the Marquis's She. The Grand She repays merit on behalf of the world, the King's She repays merit on behalf of the capital, and the Grand She is more honored than the King's She. The land (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription) therefore repays merit in two places."

王者、諸侯必有誡社何？示有存亡也。明為善者得之，惡者失之。故《春秋公羊傳》曰：“亡國之社，奄其上，柴其下。”《郊特牲》曰：“喪國之社，屋之。”自言與天地絕也。在門東，明自下之無事處也。或曰：皆當著明誡，當近君，置宗廟之牆南。《禮》曰：“亡國之社稷，必以為宗廟之屏。”示賤之也。

Kings and feudal lords must have a warning altar (the altar of a fallen state, kept as a warning); why? To show that there is survival and ruin. It shows that those who do good obtain it and those who do evil lose it. So the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn says: "The altar of the soil of a ruined state is covered above and blocked with brushwood below." The Jiao Te Sheng says: "The altar of a destroyed state is covered with a roof." It is saying itself that it is cut off from heaven and earth. It is placed east of the gate, showing that it lies in a low place with nothing to do. Another view: all should be placed in a bright place as a warning, and should be near the ruler, set south of the wall of the ancestral temple. The Rites say: "The altars of a ruined state must be made into a screen for the ancestral temple." This shows contempt for it.

社稷在中門之外、外門之內何？尊而親之，與先祖同也。不置中門內何？敬之，示不褻瀆也。《論語》曰：“譬諸宮牆，不得其門而入。不見宗廟之美，百官之富。”《祭義》曰：“右社稷，左宗廟。”

The altars of the soil and grain are outside the middle gate and inside the outer gate; why? To honor them and also to keep them close, the same as with the ancestors. Why are they not placed inside the middle gate? To revere them, showing that they are not profaned. The Analects says: "It is like a palace wall; if one does not find the gate and enter, one does not see the beauty of the ancestral temple or the richness of the hundred officials." The Meaning of Sacrifice says: "On the right are the she and ji, on the left the ancestral temple."

大夫有民，其有社稷者，亦為報功也。《禮?祭法》曰：“大夫成群立社，曰置在。”《月令》曰：“擇元日，命人社。”《論語》曰：“季路使子羔為費宰，曰：‘有民人馬，有社稷焉。’”

A grand master has people, and they have a she and ji, again in order to repay merit. The Book of Rites, in the Rules of Sacrifice, says: "When grand masters gather into a group and set up an altar of the soil, it is called a set-up she." (The base text has "zai" for "she," an error.) The Monthly Ordinances say: "Choose an auspicious day and order the people to sacrifice to the she." The Analects says: "Jilu had Zigao serve as steward of Fei, saying: 'There are people there and there are the she and ji.'" (The base text has "ma" for "yan," an error.)

不謂之土何？封土為社，故變名謂之社，別於眾土也。為社立祀，始謂之稷，語亦自變，有內外。或曰：至社稷，不以稷為社，故不變其名事，自可知也。不正月祭稷何？禮不常存，養人為用，故立其神。

Why is it not called "tu" (earth)? Earth is heaped up to make the she, so the name is changed to she, to distinguish it from ordinary earth. Setting up sacrifice for the she, only then is it called ji, and the wording itself also changes, with an inner and an outer. Another view: when speaking of she and ji, ji is not treated as she, so its name is not changed, and the matter can naturally be understood. Why is ji not sacrificed to in the first month? Ritual is not simply that it is always set up; nourishing people is for use, so a spirit is established for it.

社無屋何？達天地氣。故《郊特牲》曰：“太社稷，必受霜露風雨，以達天地之氣。”社稷所以有樹何？尊而識之，使民人望見師敬之，又所以表功也。故《周官》曰：“司社而樹之，各以土地所生。”《尚書》亡篇曰：“太社唯松，東社唯柏，南社唯梓，西社唯栗，北社唯槐。”

The she has no roof; why? To let the breath of Heaven and Earth pass through. So the Jiao Te Sheng says: "The Grand She and Ji must receive frost, dew, wind and rain, in order to let the breath of Heaven and Earth pass through." Why do the she and ji have trees? To honor them and mark them, so that when people see them they feel reverence, and also to make the merit manifest. So the Rites of Zhou says: "The one in charge of the she plants trees for it, each using what the soil of that place produces." A lost chapter of the Documents says: "The Grand She uses only pine, the East She uses only cypress, the South She uses only catalpa, the West She uses only chestnut, and the North She uses only locust."

王者自親祭社稷何？社者，土地之神也。土生萬物，天下之所主也，尊重之，故自祭也。

The king sacrifices to the she and ji in person; why? The she is the spirit of the earth. Earth gives birth to the myriad things and is the main body on which the world depends, and he honors it, so he sacrifices in person.

其壇大何？如《春秋文義》曰：“天子之社稷廣五丈，諸侯半之。”其色如何？《春秋傳》曰：“天子有太社焉，東方青色，南方赤色，西方白色，北方黑色，上冒以黃土。故將封東方諸侯，青土，苴以白茅。謹敬潔清也。”

How large is the altar? As the Chunqiu Wenyi says: "The Son of Heaven's she and ji are five zhang wide, and a feudal lord's is half that." What are its colors? The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The Son of Heaven has the Grand She, green in the east, red in the south, white in the west and black in the north, covered above with yellow earth. So when about to enfeoff a feudal lord of the east, one uses green earth, wrapped in white thatch. This is for care, reverence and cleanliness."

祭社有樂，《樂記》曰：“樂之施於金石絲竹，越於聲音，用之於宗廟社稷。”

The sacrifice to the she has music. The Record of Music says: "Music is applied to metal, stone, silk and bamboo, issues as sound, and is used in the ancestral temple and the she and ji."

《曾子問》曰：“諸侯之祭社稷，俎豆既陳，聞天子崩，如之何？孔子曰：廢。”臣子哀痛之，不敢終於禮也。

The Zengzi Asks says: "When a feudal lord is sacrificing to the she and ji, with the sacrificial stands and vessels already laid out, and hears that the Son of Heaven has died, what should be done? Confucius said: stop." The ministers are grieved and do not dare to complete the ritual.

禮樂者，何謂也？禮之為言履也，可履踐而行樂者；樂也，君子樂得其道，小人樂得其欲。王者所以盛禮樂何？節文之喜怒。樂以象天，禮以法地。人無不含天地之氣，有五常之性者，故樂所以盪滌，反其邪惡也，禮所以防淫佚，節其侈靡也。故《孝經》曰：“安上治民，莫善於禮；移風易俗，莫善於樂。”子曰：“樂在宗廟之中，君臣上下同聽之，則莫不和敬；族長鄉里之中，長幼同聽之，則莫不和順；在閨門之內，父子兄弟同聽之，則莫不和親。故樂者，所以崇和順，比物飾節，節奏合以成文，所以合和父子、君臣，附親萬民也。是先王立樂之意也。故聽其雅、頌之聲，志意得廣焉，執干鏚習俯仰屈信，容貌得齊焉；其輟兆，要其節奏，行列得正焉，進退得齊焉。故樂者天地之命、中和之紀、人情之所不能免焉也。夫樂者，先王之所以飾喜也；軍旅鉞，所以飾怒也。故先王之喜怒，皆得其齊焉，喜則天下和之，怒則暴亂者畏之。先王之道，禮樂可謂盛矣。”聞角聲，莫不惻隱而慈者；聞徵聲，莫不喜養好施者；聞聲，莫不剛斷而立事者；聞羽聲，莫不深思而遠慮者；聞宮聲，莫不溫潤而寬和者也。

What are ritual and music? "Li" (ritual) means to tread, something one can walk on and practice; "yue" (music) is joy: the gentleman delights in attaining the Way, and the petty man delights in attaining desire. The reason a king makes ritual and music grand is to regulate and adorn joy and anger. Music takes its image from Heaven, and ritual takes its model from Earth. There is no one who does not hold the breath of Heaven and Earth and have the nature of the five constants, so music is used to cleanse and bring evil back to the right path, and ritual is used to prevent excess and restrain extravagance. So the Classic of Filial Piety says: "To keep those above secure and govern the people, nothing is better than ritual; to change customs and alter habits, nothing is better than music." Confucius said: "When music is in the ancestral temple, ruler and ministers, above and below, listening together, none is not harmonious and reverent; in the clan chief's and village's setting, old and young listening together, none is not harmonious and obedient; within the inner chambers, fathers, sons and brothers listening together, none is not harmonious and affectionate. So music is used to exalt harmony and compliance, to arrange things in order, to adorn the rhythm, and when the rhythm accords it becomes refinement, to harmonize fathers and sons, rulers and ministers, and make the myriad people attached. This is the original intent of the former kings in establishing music. So listening to the sound of the Ya and the Song, one's intentions broaden; holding the shield and the axe, practicing bowing, rising, bending and stretching, one's bearing becomes orderly; treading the dance positions and keeping to the rhythm, one's ranks become upright and advancing and retreating even. So music is the command of Heaven and Earth, the guiding thread of harmony and the mean, and something human feeling cannot dispense with. Music is what the former kings used to adorn joy; the (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription) axe in the army is used to adorn anger. So the joy and anger of the former kings were each fitting: in joy, the world responded in harmony, and in anger, the violent and disorderly were afraid. In the Way of the former kings, ritual and music may be called grand." On hearing the jue note, none fails to be compassionate and loving; on hearing the zhi note, none fails to delight in nurturing and be glad to give; on hearing the (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription) note, none fails to be resolute and decisive and able to establish affairs; on hearing the yu note, none fails to think deeply and far; on hearing the gong note, none fails to be gentle, soft and tolerant.

禮所揖讓何？所以尊人自損也，不爭。《論語》曰：“揖讓而升，下而飲，其爭也君子。”故“君使臣以禮，臣事君以忠。”“謙謙君子，利涉大川。”以貴下賤，大得民也。屈己敬人，君子之心。故孔子曰：“為禮不敬，吾何以觀之哉！”夫禮者，陰陽之際也，百事之會也，所以尊天地，儐鬼神，序上下，正人道也。

Why does ritual have bowing and yielding? To honor others and yield oneself, without contention. The Analects says: "They bow and yield, then ascend the hall, and descend to drink; this kind of contention too is a gentleman's contention." So "the ruler employs his ministers by ritual, and the ministers serve the ruler with loyalty." "The modest gentleman is favorable for crossing a great river." To come down from honor to the lowly is greatly to win the hearts of the people. To humble oneself and respect others is the gentleman's heart. So Confucius said: "Practicing ritual without reverence, how can I look at him!" Ritual is where yin and yang meet and the pivot where the hundred affairs gather, used to honor Heaven and Earth, welcome the spirits, arrange the order of high and low, and set right the human way.

樂所以必歌者何？夫歌者，口言之也。中心喜樂，口欲歌之，手欲舞之，足欲蹈之。故《尚書》曰：“前歌後舞，假於上下。”禮貴忠何？禮者，盛不足節有餘，使豐年不奢，凶年不儉，貧富不相懸也。樂尚雅？雅者，古正也，所以遠鄭聲也。孔子曰：“鄭聲淫何？鄭國土地民人，山居谷浴，男女錯雜，為鄭聲以相悅懌，故邪僻聲，皆淫色之聲也。”

Why must music be sung? Song is speaking with the mouth. When the heart is joyful, the mouth wants to sing, the hands want to dance, and the feet want to stamp. So the Documents say: "Singing in front and dancing behind, communicating above and below." Why does ritual value loyalty? Ritual makes up what is lacking and restrains excess, so that in a good year there is no extravagance, in a bad year one does not fall into over-thrift, and poor and rich are not far apart. Why does music honor the Ya? Ya means ancient and correct, used to keep away from the sounds of Zheng. Confucius said: "Why are the sounds of Zheng licentious? In the land of Zheng, the people lived in the mountains and bathed in the valleys, men and women mingled, and made the sounds of Zheng to please one another, so those crooked sounds are all sounds that indulge in women's beauty."

太平乃制禮作樂何？夫禮樂，所以防奢淫。天下人民飢寒，何樂之乎！功成作樂，治定製禮。樂言作、禮言制何？樂者，陽也，陽倡始，故言作；禮者，陰也，陰制度於陽，故言制。樂象陽，禮法陰也。

Why are ritual and music made only when the world is at peace? Ritual and music are to prevent extravagance and excess. When the people of the world are still hungry and cold, what is there to rejoice at! When achievements are complete, music is made, and when government is settled, ritual is established. Why does one say "compose" for music and "establish" for ritual? Music belongs to yang, and yang leads the beginning, so it is said "compose"; ritual belongs to yin, and yin receives its regulations from yang, so it is said "establish." Music takes its image from yang, and ritual takes its model from yin.

王者始起，何用正民？以為且用先王之禮樂，天下太平，乃更製作焉。《書》曰：“肇修殷殷禮，祀新邑。”此言太平去殷禮。《春秋傳》曰：“昌何為不修乎近而修乎遠，同己也，可因先以太平也。”必復更制者，示不襲也，又天下樂之者。樂者所以象德表功殊名。《禮記》曰：“黃帝樂曰《咸池》，顓頊樂曰《六莖》，帝嚳樂曰《五英》，堯樂曰《大章》，舜樂曰《簫韶》，禹樂曰《大夏》，湯樂曰《大護》。周樂曰《大武象》，周公之樂曰《酌》，合曰《大武》。”黃帝曰《咸池》者，言大施天下之道而行之，天之所生，地之所載，鹹蒙德施也；顓頊曰《六莖》者，言和律歷以調陰陽，莖者著萬物也；帝嚳曰《五英》者，言能調和五聲以養萬物，調其英華也；堯曰《大章》，大明天地人之道也；舜曰《簫韶》者，舜能繼堯之道也，禹曰《大夏》者，言禹能順二聖之道而行之，故曰《大夏》也；湯曰《大護》者，言湯承衰，能護民之急也；周公曰《酌合》者，言周公輔成王，能斟酌文武之道而成之也；武王曰《象》者，象太平而作樂，示已太平也；合曰《大武》者，天下始樂周之徵伐行武，故詩人歌之：“王赫斯怒，爰整其旅。”當此之時，天下樂文王之怒，以定天下，故樂其武也。周室中制《象湯》樂何？殷紂為惡日久，其惡最甚，斫涉刳胎，殘賊天下。武王起兵，前歌後舞。克殷之後，民人大喜，故中作所以節喜盛。

When a king has just arisen, what is used to set the people right? It is held that for the time being the ritual and music of the former kings are used first, and when the world is at peace, new ones are made separately. The Documents say: "He first revised the rites of Yin and sacrificed in the new city." This says that after the world was at peace the Yin rites were discarded. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Why not revise the near ones but the distant ones? Because they are the same as oneself, and one may continue those of the former age to await peace." It is necessary to make new ones separately to show that one is not simply following, and also because it is what the world delights in. Music is used to image virtue, display merit and distinguish names. The Book of Rites says: "The Yellow Emperor's music was called Xianchi, Zhuanxu's was Liujing, Emperor Ku's was Wuying, Yao's was Dazhang, Shun's was Xiaoshao, Yu's was Daxia, and Tang's was Dahu. Zhou's music was called Dawu Xiang, the Duke of Zhou's was called Zhuo, and together they are called Dawu." The Yellow Emperor's was called Xianchi, saying that the Way of the world was universally carried out, and what Heaven gave birth to and Earth bore all received the bestowal of virtue; Zhuanxu's was called Liujing, saying that he harmonized the pitch-pipes and calendar to regulate yin and yang, and "jing" makes the myriad things conspicuous; Emperor Ku's was called Wuying, saying that he could harmonize the five sounds to nourish the myriad things and tend their blossoms; Yao's was called Dazhang, greatly making plain the way of Heaven, Earth and man; Shun's was called Xiaoshao, because Shun could continue Yao's way; Yu's was called Daxia, because Yu could follow the Way of the two sages and carry it out, so it was called Daxia; Tang's was called Dahu, because Tang took over a declining age and could protect the people from urgent distress; the Duke of Zhou's was called Zhuo, because the Duke of Zhou assisted King Cheng and could weigh the Way of King Wen and King Wu and complete it; King Wu's was called Xiang, taking the image of peace to make music, showing that he himself had brought peace; together it was called Dawu, because the world first delighted in Zhou's martial campaign, so the poet sang: "The king flared up in wrath, and then drilled his army." At that time the world was glad of King Wen's anger, used to settle the world, so it delighted in his martial deeds. In the middle of the Zhou house the Xiang and such music were made; why? King Zhou of Yin had done evil for a long time and his evil was the worst, cutting the shins of those who forded streams and cutting open pregnant women, harming the world. When King Wu raised troops, they sang in front and danced behind. After conquering Yin, the people were greatly delighted, so the music was made in the middle, in order to restrain excess of joy.

天子八佾，諸侯四佾，所以別尊卑。樂者陽也，故以陰數。法八風、六律、四時也。八風、六律者，天氣也，助天地成萬物者也，亦猶樂，所以順氣，變化萬民，成其性命也。故《春秋公羊傳》曰：“天子八佾，諸公六佾，諸侯四佾。”《詩》曰：“大夫士，琴瑟御。”八佾者何謂也，佾者列也，以八人為行，列八八六十四人也。諸公六六為行；諸侯四四為行。諸公謂三公、二王后。大夫士，北面之臣，非專事子民者也，故但琴瑟而已。

The Son of Heaven has eight rows of dancers, the feudal lords four rows, to distinguish high and low. Music belongs to yang, so it uses a yin number. It takes its models from the eight winds, six pitch-pipes and four seasons. The eight winds and six pitch-pipes are the breath of Heaven, assisting Heaven and Earth in completing the myriad things, and are also like music, used to accord with the breath, transform the myriad people and complete their nature and fate. So the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn says: "The Son of Heaven has eight rows, the dukes have six rows, and the feudal lords four rows." The Odes say: "Grand masters and scholars, are served with zither and se." What are eight rows? "Yi" means a row, with eight people to a line, forming eight times eight, sixty-four people. The dukes use six times six; the feudal lords use four times four. The dukes means the Three Dukes and the descendants of the two kings. Grand masters and scholars are ministers who face north and are not specially in charge of governing the people, so they use only zither and se.

王者有六樂者，貴公美德也。所以作供養。傾先王之樂，明有法，示亡其本。興己所以自作樂，明作己也。

A king has six musics, valuing impartiality and praising virtue. They are used for nourishing. To incline one's heart toward the music of the former kings shows that there are laws to rely on and shows that one does not lose the root; to rise up oneself and therefore make one's own music shows that the making comes from oneself.

樂所以作四夷之樂何？德廣及之也。《易》曰：“先王以作樂崇德，殷薦之上帝，以配祖考。《詩》云：“奏鼓簡簡，ぅ我烈祖。”《樂元語》曰：“受命而六樂。樂先王之樂，明有法也；與其所自作，明有制；興四夷之樂，明德廣及之也。故南夷之樂曰《兜》，西夷之樂曰《禁》，北夷之樂曰《昧》，東夷之樂曰《離》。合歡之樂亻舞於堂，四夷之樂陳於右，先王所以得之，順命重始也。

Why must the music of the four barbarians be made? Because virtue is broad and can reach them. The Changes say: "The former kings made music to exalt virtue, and presented it grandly to the Lord on High, to match it with their ancestors." The Odes say: "The sound of the drums is upright and proper, and gladdens our meritorious ancestors." (The base text has a garbled character for "kan," glad, here.) The Yueyuan Yu says: "Receiving the mandate there are six musics. Playing the music of the former kings shows that there are laws; adding what one has made oneself shows that there are institutions; raising the music of the four barbarians shows that virtue is broad and can reach them. So the music of the southern barbarians is called Dou, that of the western barbarians is called Jin, that of the northern barbarians is called Mei, and that of the eastern barbarians is called Li. The music of joint delight is danced in the hall, and the music of the four barbarians is set out on the right." (The base text has a split-up form of the character "wu," dance, here.) The former kings obtained these by following the mandate of Heaven and valuing beginnings.

此言以人得之，先以文，謂持羽毛亻舞也；以武得之，先以武，謂持干鏚亻舞也。《樂元語》曰：“東夷之樂持矛舞，助時生也；南夷之樂持羽舞，助時養也；西夷之樂持戰舞，助時煞也。”北夷之樂持幹舞助時藏也，誰制夷狄之樂？以為先聖王也。先王惟行道德，和調陰陽，覆被夷狄，故夷狄安樂，來朝中國，於是作樂樂之。《南》之為言任也，任養萬物；《味》之為言昧也，昧者，萬物老衰，禁者萬物禁藏，侏離者萬物微離地而生。

This says: those who gained the world by civil virtue use civil forms first, that is, dance holding feathers; those who gained the world by martial achievement use martial forms first, that is, dance holding shield and axe. (The base text has a split-up form of "wu," dance, here.) The Yueyuan Yu says: "The music of the eastern barbarians is danced with spears, to help the season's birth; the music of the southern barbarians is danced with feathers, to help the season's growth; the music of the western barbarians is danced with halberds, to help the season's stern killing." The music of the northern barbarians is danced with shields, to help the season's closing and storing. Who established the barbarians' music? It is held to be the former sage kings. The former kings only practiced virtue, harmonized yin and yang, and extended their cover to the barbarians, so the barbarians were at peace and came to court the Central Plain, and so music was made to delight them. The Nan means "ren," to bear the nurturing of the myriad things; the Mei means "dark," for the myriad things growing old; Jin is for the myriad things being shut in and stored; Zhuli is for the myriad things slightly leaving the earth to be born.

一說東方持矛，南方歌，西方戚，北方擊金。夷狄質，不如中國中國文章，但隨物名之耳，故百王不易戚二者制夷狄樂。不制夷狄禮何？以為禮者，身當履而行之，夷狄之人不能行禮；樂者，聖人作為以樂之耳，故有夷狄樂也。殊為舞者？以為使中國人。何以言之？夷狄之人禮不備，恐有過誤也。作之門外者何？夷在外，故就之也。夷狄無禮義，故不在內。《明堂記》曰：“九夷之國，在東門之外。”所以知不在門內也。《明堂記》曰：“禹納蠻夷之樂於太廟。”言納，明有入也。

One view: the east holds spears, the south sings, the west holds axes, and the north strikes metal instruments. The barbarians are simple and lack the refinement of the Central Plain, and only name things as they are, so the hundred kings did not change this, and used two things like the axe to establish the barbarian music. Why was no ritual established for the barbarians? Because ritual is something one must tread and carry out in person, and the barbarians cannot practice ritual; music is made by the sages to delight them, so there is music of the barbarians. Who else is made to dance? It is held that people of the Central Plain are made to dance. On what grounds do we say this? The barbarians' ritual is incomplete and one fears errors. Why is it played outside the gate? The barbarians are outside, so one accommodates them. The barbarians have no ritual or righteousness, so they are not inside the gate. The Record of the Bright Hall says: "The states of the Nine Yi are outside the east gate." From this we know they are not inside the gate. The Record of the Bright Hall says: "Yu took the music of the barbarians into the grand temple." Saying "took in" shows that there was an entering.

曰四夷之樂者何謂也？以為四夷外無禮義之國，數夷狄者從東，故舉本以為之總名也。言夷狄者，舉終始也；言蠻，舉遠也；言貉，舉惡也。則別之，東方為九夷，南方為八蠻，西方為六戎，北方為五狄。故《曾子問》曰：“九夷、八蠻、六戎、五狄、百姓之難至者也。”

What does it mean to say "music of the four barbarians"? It is held that the four barbarians are outer states without ritual and righteousness, and in counting the barbarians one starts from the east, so this origin is raised as the general name. Saying "Yi and Di" raises the end and the beginning; saying "Man" raises the far; saying "Mo" raises the evil. Separately, the east has nine Yi, the south has eight Man, the west has six Rong, and the north has five Di. So the Zengzi Asks says: "The Nine Yi, Eight Man, Six Rong and Five Di are hard for the common people to reach."

何以知夷在東方？《禮?王制》曰：“東方曰夷，被髮文身；又曰：南方曰蠻，雕題交趾；西方曰戎，被髮衣皮；北方曰狄，衣羽毛穴居。”東所以九何？蓋來者過九之為言究也，德遍究，故應德而來亦九也，非故為之，道自然也。何以名為夷蠻？曰：聖人本不治外國，非為制名也，因其國名而言之耳。一說曰：名其短而為之制名也。夷者，聚狄無禮義。東方者，少陽易化，故取名也。北方太陰鄙郄，故少蠻難化，執心違邪。戎者，強惡也。狄者，易也，辟易無別也。

How do we know that the Yi are in the east? The Book of Rites, in the Royal Regulations, says: "The people of the east are called Yi, with hair loose and bodies tattooed"; it also says: "The people of the south are called Man, with carved foreheads and feet crossing; the people of the west are called Rong, with hair loose and wearing furs; the people of the north are called Di, wearing feathers and living in caves." Why is the east nine? Those who came exceeded nine; "nine" has the sense of "exhaust," virtue reaching everywhere, so those who came in response to virtue were also nine; it was not made so on purpose, and the Way is naturally so. Why are they named Yi and Man? The answer: the sages did not govern foreign lands at root, and it was not that they gave them separate names, but only spoke on the basis of their state names. Another view: names were given on the basis of their shortcomings. "Yi" is the Di gathered together, without ritual or righteousness. The east is lesser yang and easy to transform, so this name is taken. The north is great yin, rustic and closed, so there are few; the Man (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription) are hard to transform, with minds clinging to what is crooked. The Rong are violent and fierce. The Di are "yi," to give way, without distinction.

歌者在堂上，舞在堂下何？歌者象德，舞者象，君子上德而下功。《郊特牲》曰：“歌者在上。”《論語》曰：“季氏八佾舞於庭。”《書》曰：“下管召鼓，笙鏞以間。”

Why do the singers stand in the hall and the dancers below the hall? Singing images virtue and dancing images merit, and the gentleman puts virtue above and merit below. The Jiao Te Sheng says: "The singers are above." The Analects says: "The Ji family used eight rows of dancers in the courtyard." The Documents say: "Below the hall, the pipes, (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription) drums, the sheng and the large bells are played in turn."

降神之樂在上何？為鬼神舉。故《書》曰：“戛擊鳴球、搏拊、琴瑟，以詠，祖考來格。”何以用鳴球、搏拊者何？鬼神清虛，貴淨賤鏗鏘也。故《尚書大傳》曰：“搏拊鼓，裝以秉。琴瑟，練絲朱弦。”鳴者，貴玉聲也。

Why is the music for bringing down the spirits placed above? It is set up for ghosts and spirits. So the Documents say: "Strike the ringing jade, the clappers, the zither and se, in order to chant, and the ancestors come." Why are the ringing jade and clappers used? Ghosts and spirits are pure and empty, valuing purity and stillness and slighting loud clanging. So the Shangshu Dazhuan says: "The clapper-drum is filled with chaff. The zither and se use refined silk and red strings." "Ming" values the sound of jade.

王者食所以有樂何？樂食天下之太平、富積之饒也，明天子至尊，非功不食，非德不飽，故《傳》曰：“天子食時舉樂。”王者所以日食者何？明有四方之物，食四時之功也。四方不平，四時不順，有徹樂之法焉，所以明至尊著法戒也。王平居中央，制御四方。平旦食，少陽之始也；晝食，太陽之始也；脯食，少陰之始也；暮食，太陰之始也。《論語》曰：“亞飯幹適楚，三飯繚適蔡，四飯缺適秦。”諸侯三飯，卿大夫再飯，尊卑之差也。《弟子職》曰：“暮食士偃禮。”士也；食力無數，庶人職在耕桑，戮力勞役，飯即食，飽即作，故無數。

Why does a king have music at meals? It is to delight in eating in a peaceful world with rich stores, showing that the Son of Heaven is of the highest honor and does not eat without merit or fill himself without virtue. So the Commentary says: "The Son of Heaven eats with music raised." Why does a king eat four times a day? To show that he has the goods of the four quarters and eats the merit of the four seasons. If the four quarters are not at peace or the four seasons are not in order, there is a rule of withdrawing music, in order to make plain the highest honor and make the warning clear. The king dwells in the center, controlling the four quarters. Eating at dawn is the beginning of lesser yang; eating by day is the beginning of greater yang; eating in the afternoon is the beginning of lesser yin; eating at dusk is the beginning of greater yin. The Analects says: "The one in charge of the second meal, Gan, fled to Chu; the one in charge of the third, Liao, fled to Cai; the one in charge of the fourth, Que, fled to Qin." Feudal lords have three meals and ministers and grand masters two, a gradation of high and low. The Rules for Disciples says: "Eat the evening meal, and scholars rest and practice ritual." This is for scholars; those who eat by their strength have no set number of meals, and the commoners' duty is plowing fields and tending mulberries, laboring to the utmost, eating when mealtime comes and working again when full, so they have no fixed number.

禮樂者，何謂也？禮之為言履也，可履踐而行樂者。君子樂得其道，小人樂得其欲。聲者，何謂。聲鳴也，聞其聲即知其所生；音者，飲也，言其剛柔清濁和而相飲也。《尚書》曰：“予欲聞六律、五聲、八音。”五聲者，何謂也？宮、商、角、徵、羽，土謂宮，金謂商，木謂角，火謂徵，水謂羽。月令曰：盛德在木，其音角，又曰：盛德在火，其音徵，盛德在金其音商，盛德在水，其音羽。所以名之為角者，躍也，陽氣動躍；徵者，止也，陽氣止；商者，張也，陰氣開張，陽氣始降也；羽者，紆也，陰氣在上，陽氣在下；宮者，容也，含也，含容四時者也。

What are ritual and music? "Li" (ritual) means to tread, something one can walk on and practice; as for music, the gentleman delights in attaining the Way, and the petty man delights in attaining desire. What is "sheng" (sound)? Sound is "ming," and on hearing a sound one knows where it arises from; "yin" (note) is "yin," to drink, saying that firm and soft, clear and turbid harmonize and drink one another in. The Documents say: "I wish to hear the six pitch-pipes, the five sounds and the eight timbres." What are the five sounds? Gong, shang, jue, zhi and yu; earth corresponds to gong, metal to shang, wood to jue, fire to zhi and water to yu. The Monthly Ordinances say: when flourishing virtue is in wood, its note is jue; also: when flourishing virtue is in fire, its note is zhi; when flourishing virtue is in metal, its note is shang; when flourishing virtue is in water, its note is yu. So jue is "yue," to leap, the yang breath stirring and leaping; zhi is "zhi," to stop, the yang breath stopping; shang is "zhang," to spread, the yin breath spreading and the yang breath beginning to descend; yu is "yu," to curve, with the yin breath above and the yang breath below; gong is "rong," to hold and contain, containing the four seasons.

八音者，何謂也？《樂記》曰：“土曰壎，竹曰管，皮曰鼓，匏曰笙，絲曰弦，石曰磬，金曰鍾，木曰。”此謂八音也。法《易》八卦也，萬物之數也；八音，萬物之聲也。所以用八音何？天子承繼萬物，當知其數。既得其數，當知其聲，即思其形。如此飛蠕動，無不樂其音者，至德之道也。天子樂之，故樂用八音。《樂記》曰：“壎，坎音也；管，艮音也；鼓，震音也；弦，離音也；鍾，兌音也；祝，乾音也。”壎在十一月，壎之為言勳也，陽氣於黃泉之下，勳蒸而萌；匏之言施也，在十二月，萬物始施而勞。笙者，太蔟之氣，象萬物之生，故曰笙。有七正之節焉，有六合之和焉，天下樂之，故謂之笙。鼓，震音煩氣也。萬物憤懣震動而出，雷以動之，溫以暖之，風以散之，雨以濡之，奮至德之聲，感和平之氣也，同聲相應，同氣相求，神明報應，天地佑之，其本乃在萬物之始耶，故謂之鼓也。召者，震之氣也，上應卯星以通王道，故謂之召也。簫者，中之氣，萬物生於無聲，見於無形，﹃也，簫也，故謂之簫。簫者以祿為本，言承天繼物為民，本人力加，地道化，然後萬物戮也，故謂之簫也。瑟者，嗇也，閒也，所以懲忽宮商角則宜。君父有節，臣子有義，然後四時和，四時和然後萬物生，故謂之瑟也。琴者，禁也，所以禁止淫邪、正人心也。磬者，夷則之氣也，象萬物之盛也，其氣磬，故曰磬，有貴賤焉，有親束焉，有長幼焉，朝廷之禮，貴不讓賤，所以有尊卑也；鄉黨之禮，長不讓幼，所以明有年也；宗廟之禮，親不讓束，所以有親也。此三者行然後王道得，王道得然後萬物成，天下樂用磬也。鍾之為言動也，陰氣用事，萬物動成，鍾為氣，用金聲也。者，時之氣聲也，節度之所生也。君臣有節度則萬物昌，無節度則萬物亡，亡與昌正相迫，故謂之。

What are the eight sounds? The Yue Ji says: "Earth is the xun (ocarina), bamboo is the pipe, hide is the drum, gourd is the sheng (mouth organ), silk is the string, stone is the chime, metal is the bell, and wood is [a character missing from the source, lost in transcription]." These are the eight sounds. Modeled on the eight trigrams of the Book of Changes, the trigrams are the number of the myriad things, and the eight sounds are the sounds of the myriad things. Why use the eight sounds? The Son of Heaven inherits the myriad things and ought to know their number; once he knows their number, he ought to know their sounds, and from there think of their forms. In this way, even the flying and crawling tiny creatures, [two characters missing from the source, lost in transcription], all delight in its sound; this is the way of utmost virtue. The Son of Heaven delights in this, so his music uses the eight sounds. The Yue Ji says: "The xun is the sound of Kan; the pipe is the sound of Gen; the drum is the sound of Zhen; the string is the sound of Li; the bell is the sound of Dui; the zhu and [a character missing from the source] are the sound of Qian." The xun belongs to the eleventh month; xun means "to exert merit" (xun): beneath the Yellow Springs the yang energy steams and sprouts. The gourd means "to bestow" (shi); it belongs to the twelfth month, when the myriad things begin to unfold and labor. The sheng is the energy of Taicu and images the birth of the myriad things, hence it is called sheng ("birth"). It has the measure of the seven correct tones and the harmony of the six directions, and all under Heaven delight in it, so it is called sheng. The drum is the sound of Zhen and the restless energy. The myriad things burst forth in frustration and quaking: thunder comes to stir them, warmth comes to warm them, wind comes to scatter them, rain comes to moisten them; it rouses the sound of utmost virtue and stirs the energy of peace; like sounds answer one another, like energies seek one another, the spirits respond, and Heaven and Earth give protection. Its root lies in the beginning of the myriad things, so it is called the drum (gu). [A character missing from the source] is the energy of Zhen, answering above to the Mao star to link up the kingly way, hence the name. The xiao (flute) is the energy of the center: the myriad things are born out of soundlessness and appear out of formlessness, and the sign "﹃" also means xiao, hence it is called xiao. The xiao takes emolument (lu) as its root, meaning that it receives from Heaven above, continues the things below, and acts for the people; human strength is added, the transforming way of Earth proceeds, and only then are the myriad things completed, hence it is called xiao. The se (zither) means "thrift" (se) and "leisure" (xian); it is used to guard against negligence, and only then do the gong, shang and jue tones become fitting. When lord and father have restraint and ministers and sons have righteousness, the four seasons are in harmony; when the four seasons are in harmony, the myriad things are born, hence it is called se. The qin means "to prohibit" (jin); it is used to forbid licentiousness and wickedness and to rectify the human heart. The chime is the energy of Yize and images the flourishing of the myriad things; "its energy is chime-like" (qing), hence it is called qing. It has noble and humble, close and distant, elder and younger. The source text reads [a garbled character in the source], which is a corruption from splitting the character shu (distant). In the rites of the court, the noble does not yield to the humble, so there is high and low; in the rites of the village, the elder does not yield to the younger, so age is made clear; in the rites of the ancestral temple, the close does not yield to the distant, so kinship is honored. When these three are practiced, the kingly way is attained; when the kingly way is attained, the myriad things are completed, and all under Heaven delight in using the chime. The bell means "to move" (dong): yin energy takes charge, the myriad things move and are completed; the bell is energy, using the sound of metal. [A character missing from the source] is the energy-sound of the seasons, from which measure is born. When lord and ministers have measure, the myriad things flourish; without measure, the myriad things perish. Perishing and flourishing press close upon each other, hence it is so called.

者，終始之聲，萬物之所生也。陰陽順而復，故曰；承順天地，序迎萬物，天下樂之，故樂用。，始也；，終也。一說笙、、鼓、簫、瑟、壎、鍾、磬也。如其次，笙在北方，在東北方，鼓在東方，琴在南方，壎在西南方，鍾在西方，磬在北方。

[Two characters missing from the source, lost in transcription] are the sound of ending and beginning, from which the myriad things are born. Yin and yang follow along and return again, so the former character is so named; it complies with Heaven and Earth, arranges in order and welcomes the myriad things, and all under Heaven delight in it, so music uses it. The former character is the beginning and the latter is the end. One account says they are the sheng, [a character missing from the source], drum, xiao, se, xun, bell and chime. By this order, the sheng is in the north, [the missing character] is in the northeast, the drum in the east, the qin in the south, the xun in the southwest, the bell in the west, and the chime in the north.

聲五音八何？聲為本，出於五行；音為末，象八風，故《樂記》曰：“聲成文謂之音，知音而樂之謂之樂也。”

The sounds are five and the tones are eight; why? The sounds are the root and come out of the five phases; the tones are the branches and take their image from the eight winds. Therefore the Yue Ji says: "When sounds form a pattern, they are called tones; to understand tones and delight in them is called music."

問曰：“異說並行，則弟子疑焉。”孔子有言：“吾聞擇其善者而從之，多見而志之，知之次也。”“文武之道，未墜於地。”“天之將喪斯文也，樂亦在其中矣。”聖人之道，猶有文質，所以擬其說、述所聞者，亦各傳其所受而已。

Someone asked: "When different accounts circulate side by side, the disciples become confused." Confucius said: "I have heard that one chooses the good and follows it, and sees much and remembers it; this is the next level of knowledge." "The way of King Wen and King Wu has not yet fallen to the ground." "If Heaven means to destroy this culture, then music too is within it." The way of the sages still has the distinction of pattern and substance, so those who conjecture these accounts and record what they have heard each simply transmit what they themselves received.

王者所以立三公、九卿何？曰：天雖至神，必因日月之光；地雖至靈，必有山川之化；聖人雖有萬人之德，必須俊賢三公、九卿、二十七大夫、八十一元士，以順天成其道。司馬主兵，司徒主人，司空主地。王者受命為天、地、人之職，故分職以置三公，各主其一，以效其功。一公置三卿，故九卿也。天道莫不成於三：天有三光，日、月、星；地有三形，高、下、平；人有三尊，君、父、師。故一公三卿佐之，一卿三大夫佐之，一大夫三元士佐之。天有三光然後而能遍照，各自有三法，物成於三：有始、有中、有終，明天道而終之也。三公、九卿、二十七大夫、八十一元士，凡百二十官，下應十二子。《別名記》曰：司徒典民，司空主地，司馬順天。天者施生，所以主兵何？兵者，為諸除害也，所以全其生、衛其養也，故兵稱天。寇賊猛獸，皆為除害者所主也。《論語》曰：“天下有道，則禮樂、征伐自天子出。”司馬主兵，言馬者，馬陽物，乾之所為，行兵用焉，不以傷害為度，故言馬也；司徒主人，不言徒人者，徒眾也，重民；司空主土，不言土言空者，空尚主之，何況於實？以微見著。

Why does a true king establish the Three Dukes and the Nine Ministers? Answer: Although Heaven is utterly divine, it must rely on the light of the sun and moon; although Earth is utterly numinous, it must have the nurturing of mountains and rivers; although a sage has virtue surpassing ten thousand men, he must have outstanding worthies to serve as the Three Dukes, the Nine Ministers, the twenty-seven grand masters and the eighty-one principal officers, so as to comply with Heaven and fulfill its way. The Minister of War (Sima) governs the army, the Minister of Education (Situ) governs the people, and the Minister of Works (Sikong) governs the land. When a king receives the mandate, he takes up the duties of Heaven, Earth and Man, and so divides the offices and appoints the Three Dukes, each in charge of one of them, in order to assess their achievements. Each Duke has three Ministers, hence there are nine Ministers. The way of Heaven is always completed in threes: Heaven has three lights, the sun, moon and stars; Earth has three forms, high, low and level; Man has three honored ones, the lord, the father and the teacher. So each Duke is assisted by three Ministers, each Minister by three grand masters, and each grand master by three principal officers. Heaven has three lights and so can illuminate everywhere; each has its own three models, and things are completed in threes: there is a beginning, a middle and an end, which makes the way of Heaven clear and carries it through. The Three Dukes, nine Ministers, twenty-seven grand masters and eighty-one principal officers make one hundred and twenty officials in all, corresponding below to the twelve earthly branches. The Bie Ming Ji says: the Minister of Education governs the people, the Minister of Works governs the land, and the Minister of War complies with Heaven. Heaven is the giver of life; why does it govern the army? The army removes harm on behalf of the multitude, so as to preserve their lives and guard their sustenance, and therefore the army is called "Heaven." Bandits, thieves and fierce beasts all fall under the one who removes harm. The Analects says: "When the Way prevails in the world, rites, music and punitive expeditions proceed from the Son of Heaven." The Minister of War governs the army and is called "horse" (ma) because the horse is a yang creature, brought to completion by Qian; it is used in the conduct of war, and harm is not its measure, hence the word "horse." The Minister of Education governs the people but is not called "the Tu of people," because tu means "the multitude," and so it stresses the people. The Minister of Works governs the earth but is called not "earth" but "void" (kong); if even the void is governed, how much more the solid? This uses the subtle to reveal the manifest.

王者主三公、九卿、二十七大夫，足以教道，照幽隱，必復封諸侯何？重民之至也。善惡比而易故知，擇賢而封之，使治其民，以著其德，極其才。上以尊天子，備蕃輔，下以子養百姓，施行其道，開賢者之路，謙不自專，故列土封賢，因而象之，象賢重民也。

A true king, having the Three Dukes, nine Ministers and twenty-seven grand masters, is already able to spread instruction and illuminate the hidden; why must he still enfeoff feudal lords? Because he values the people to the utmost. When good and evil are set side by side, they are easily known; he selects a worthy man and enfeoffs him, so that he governs the people of that place, thereby displaying his virtue and exhausting his talent. Above, he honors the Son of Heaven and serves as a bulwark and screen; below, he nurtures the people as one nurtures one's sons, carrying out his way and opening the path for the worthy. Being humble, the king does not rule on his own, so he divides the land and enfeoffs worthy men, and in so doing takes his image from worthiness and values the people.

州伯何謂也？伯，長也，選擇賢良，使長一州，故謂之伯也。《王制》曰：“千里之外設方伯。五國以為屬，屬有長；十國以為連，連有率；三十國以為卒，卒有正；二百一十國以為州，州有伯。”唐虞謂之牧何？尚質，使大夫往來牧諸侯，故謂之牧。旁立三人，凡十二人。《尚書》曰：“諮十有二牧。”何知堯時十有二州也？以《禹貢》言九州也。

What is a Prefect of a Province (zhou bo)? Bo means "chief"; a worthy and good man is selected to be chief of one province, so he is called bo. The Wang Zhi says: "Beyond a thousand li a Regional Chief (fang bo) is established. Five states form one shu, and the shu has a head; ten states form one lian, and the lian has a leader; thirty states form one zu, and the zu has a regulator; two hundred and ten states form one province, and the province has a bo." In the times of Tang and Yu he was called mu (shepherd); why? Because they honored simplicity, they sent grand masters back and forth to shepherd the feudal lords, hence the name mu. Three more were set up beside them, twelve in all. The Book of Documents says: "He consulted the twelve shepherds." How do we know there were twelve provinces in the time of Yao? Because the Yu Gong speaks of nine provinces (which were later divided into twelve).

王者所以有二伯者，分職而授政，欲其亟成也。《王制》曰：“八伯各以其屬屬於天子之老。”曰二伯。《詩》云：“蔽芾甘棠，勿翦勿伐，邵伯所茇。”《春秋公羊傳》曰：“自陝已東，周公主之，自陝已西，邵公主之。”不分南北何？東方被聖人化日少，西方被聖人化日久，故分東西，使聖人主其難者，賢者主其易者，乃俱到太平也。又欲令同有陰陽寒暑之節，共法度也。所分陝者，是國中也，若言面，八百四十國矣。

The reason a true king has two Chiefs (er bo) is to divide the offices and delegate government, hoping that affairs will be completed quickly. The Wang Zhi says: "The eight Chiefs each lead their subordinates and are attached to the Son of Heaven's senior ministers." These are the two Chiefs. The Book of Odes says: "Small is the sweet pear tree; do not prune it, do not fell it, for it is where the Lord of Shao rested." The Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals says: "From Shan eastward, the Duke of Zhou governs; from Shan westward, the Duke of Shao governs." Why not divide north and south? Because the east had received the sages' instruction for few days, while the west had received it for long; so they divided east and west, letting the sage govern the difficult and the worthy govern the easy, so that all could reach peace together. It also lets both sides share the same seasons of yin and yang, cold and heat, and use one common set of standards. The Shan that divides them is the center of the realm; reckoned by area, there are eight hundred and forty states.

諸侯有三卿者，分三事也。五大夫者，下天子。《王制》曰：“大國三卿，皆命於天子。下大夫五人，上士二十七人；次國三卿，二卿命於天子，一卿命於其君；小國二卿，皆命於其君。大夫悉同。《禮?王度記》曰：“子、男三卿，一卿命於天子。”

A feudal lord has three Ministers, which divides three duties among them. He has five grand masters, which is below the Son of Heaven. The Wang Zhi says: "A large state has three Ministers, all appointed by the Son of Heaven. There are five lower grand masters and twenty-seven upper officers. A medium state has three Ministers, two appointed by the Son of Heaven and one by the lord of that state. A small state has two Ministers, both appointed by the lord of that state." The grand masters are the same throughout. The Wang Du Ji of the Book of Rites says: "Viscounts and Barons have three Ministers, one of whom is appointed by the Son of Heaven."

諸侯封不過百里，象雷震百里，所潤雨同也。雷者，陰中之陽也，諸侯象也。諸侯比王者為陰，南面賞罰為陽，法雷也。七十里、五十里，差德功也。故《王制》曰：“凡四海之內九州，州方千里，建百里之國二十，七十里之國六十，五十里之國百有二十。名山大澤不以封，其餘以為附庸閒田。”天子所治方千里，此平土三千，並數邑居山川至五十里，名山大澤不以封者，與百姓共之，不使一國獨專也。山木之饒，水泉之利，千里相通，所均有無，贍其不足。制土三等何？因土地有高、下、中。

A feudal lord's fief does not exceed a hundred li, taking its image from the fact that thunder shakes for a hundred li and rain also moistens for a hundred li. Thunder is yang within yin, and the feudal lords take their image from it. Compared with the true king, the feudal lord is yin, but facing south and bestowing rewards and punishments is yang, which models itself on thunder. Seventy li and fifty li are gradations of merit and virtue. Therefore the Wang Zhi says: "Within the four seas there are nine provinces altogether, each a thousand li square, in which twenty states of a hundred li are established, sixty states of seventy li, and one hundred and twenty states of fifty li. Famous mountains and great marshes are not enfeoffed; the remainder serves as dependent states and vacant fields." What the Son of Heaven governs is a thousand li square, and here the level land is three thousand, with towns, mountains and rivers counted up to fifty li. Famous mountains and great marshes are not enfeoffed because they are shared with the people and not left to one state alone. The riches of timber in the mountains and the benefits of springs and waters connect across a thousand li, in order to balance surplus and lack and make up deficiencies. Why is the land divided into three grades? Because land is high, low or middling.

王者即位，先封賢者，憂人之急也。故列土為疆非為諸侯，張官設府非為卿大夫，皆為民也。《易》曰：“利建侯。”此言因所利故立之。《樂記》曰：“武王克殷反商，下車封夏后氏之後於杞，殷人之後於宋，封王子比干之墓，釋箕子之囚。”天下太平乃封親屬者，示不私也。即不私封之何？普天之下，莫非王土，率土之賓，莫非王臣。海內之眾已盡得使之，不忍使親屬無短足之居，一人使封之，親親之義也。以《尚書》封康叔據平安也。王者始起封諸父、昆弟，與己共財之義，故可與共土也。一說諸父不得封諸侯二十國，厚有功象賢以為民也，賢者子孫類多賢。又卿不世位，為其不子愛百姓，各加一功，以虞樂其身也。受命不封子者，父子手足，無分離異財之義。至昆弟皮體有分別，故封之也。以舜封弟象有比之野也。

When a true king takes the throne, he first enfeoffs the worthy, out of concern for others' urgent difficulties. So dividing the land and setting boundaries is not for the feudal lords, and establishing offices is not for the ministers and grand masters; all is for the people. The Book of Changes says: "It is beneficial to establish feudal lords." This means they are established because it is beneficial. The Yue Ji says: "When King Wu had conquered Yin and returned to the Shang territory, before even stepping down from his chariot he enfeoffed the descendants of the Xia house in Qi, enfeoffed the descendants of the Yin people in Song, built a tomb for the royal prince Bi Gan, and released Jizi." Enfeoffing relatives only after the world is at peace shows that he does not act for private gain. Since he does not act for private gain, why does he still enfeoff them? There is no land under Heaven that is not the king's land, and no one within the borders of the land who is not the king's subject. The multitudes within the seas can already be employed, yet he cannot bear for his relatives to have not even a spot to stand on, so he enfeoffs them; this is the principle of showing affection to kin. Consider the enfeoffment of Kang Shu in the Book of Documents: it was based on security. When a king first rises, he enfeoffs his paternal uncles and brothers because there is a principle of sharing wealth with them, so he can share land with them. Another account says: the paternal uncles may not be enfeoffed to the extent of twenty feudal states; being generous to the meritorious and taking the worthy as one's image is for the sake of the people, and the descendants of the worthy are mostly worthy too. Moreover, a minister's rank and salary are not hereditary, for fear that they will not love the people as their children, so each is given an added merit in order to make himself content. He does not enfeoff his own son upon receiving the mandate, because father and son are like hand and foot and there is no principle of separating and dividing wealth between them. By the time of brothers, the bodies are already distinct, so they are enfeoffed. Consider how Shun enfeoffed his younger brother Xiang in the wilds of Youbi.

封諸侯以夏何？陽氣盛養，故封諸侯，盛養賢也。封立人君，陽德之盛者。《月令》曰：“孟夏之月行賞，封諸侯，慶賜，無不欣悅。”

Why is the enfeoffment of feudal lords done in summer? The yang energy is at its fullest and is growing and nourishing, so enfeoffing feudal lords is a grand nurturing of the worthy. Establishing a ruler of men is done when yang virtue is at its fullest. The Yue Ling says: "In the first month of summer, rewards are given, feudal lords are enfeoffed, and congratulatory gifts are bestowed, and there is no one who is not delighted."

何以言諸侯繼世以立？諸侯，象賢也。大夫不世位何？股肱之臣，任事者也，為其專權擅勢，傾覆國家。又曰孫苟中，庸不任輔政，妨塞賢，故不世世。故《春秋公羊傳》曰：“譏世世，非禮也。”諸侯世位，大夫不世，安法？所以諸侯南面之君，體陽而行，陽道不絕；大夫人臣，北面，體陰而行，陰道絕。以男生內向，有留家之義；女生外嚮，有從夫之義。此陽不絕、陰有絕之效也。

How do we know that feudal lords succeed by lineage? Feudal lords take their image from the worthy. Why do grand masters not inherit their rank and salary? They are limbs and trunk-supports of the ruler, those who hold the affairs of government, and there is fear that they would monopolize power and overturn the state. Another account: if a grandson is only middling and mediocre and cannot assist in government, he would hinder and block the worthy, so rank is not hereditary. Therefore the Gongyang Commentary says: "It criticizes hereditary succession as contrary to ritual." Feudal lords inherit and grand masters do not; what is the model? Because the feudal lord is a ruler facing south, embodies yang and acts accordingly, and the way of yang is not cut off; the grand master is a subject facing north, embodies yin and acts accordingly, and the way of yin has breaks. Consider that a man is born inward-facing and has the principle of staying at home, while a woman is born outward-facing and has the principle of following her husband; this is the proof that yang is not cut off and yin has breaks.

國在立太子者，防篡煞，壓臣子之亂也。《春秋》之弒太子，罪與弒君同。《春秋》曰：“弒其君之子奚齊。”明與弒君同也。君薨，適夫人無子，有育遺腹，必待其產立之何？專適重正也。《曾子問》曰：“立適以長不以賢何？以言為賢不肖，不可知也。”《尚書》曰：“惟帝其難之。”立子以貴不以長，防愛憎也。《春秋傳》曰：“適以長不以賢，立子以貴不以長也。”

A state must establish a crown prince, in order to prevent usurpation and murder and to suppress ministers' rebellions. In the Spring and Autumn Annals, the crime of killing a crown prince is the same as that of killing a ruler. The Annals says: "He killed the son of his ruler, Xiqi." This shows it is the same as killing a ruler. When a ruler dies and his primary consort has no son but is pregnant with a posthumous child, one must wait for her to give birth before establishing an heir; why? To focus on the primary line and value legitimacy. The Zengzi Wen says: "Why is the heir by the primary wife established by seniority and not by worth? Because who is worthy and who is unworthy cannot be known in advance." The Book of Documents says: "Even the Emperor found it difficult." A son by a lesser wife is established by rank and not by seniority, in order to prevent favoritism and hatred. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The primary heir is established by seniority and not by worth; a son is established by rank and not by seniority."

始封諸侯無子死，不得與兄弟何？古者象賢也，弟非賢者子孫。《春秋傳》曰：“善善及子孫。”不言及昆弟，昆弟尊同，無相承養之義，以閔公不繼莊公也，昆弟不相繼。至繼體諸侯無子，得及親屬者，以其俱賢者子孫也。重其先祖之功，故得及之。

When the first enfeoffed feudal lord dies without a son, he may not pass the fief to a brother; why? In ancient times the enfeoffment took its image from the worthy, and a younger brother is not a descendant of that worthy man. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Good deeds are extended to the descendants." It does not say they are extended to brothers. Brothers are equal in honor and have no principle of supporting one another; consider how Duke Min did not succeed Duke Zhuang: brothers do not succeed one another. When a feudal lord who has inherited the line dies without a son, the fief may be extended to relatives, because all of them are descendants of the worthy man. Because the ancestor's merit is valued, it can be extended.

《禮服傳》曰：“大宗不可絕。同宗則可以為後、為人作子何？明小宗可以絕，大宗不可絕。故舍己之父，往為後於大宗，所以尊祖，重不絕大宗也。”《春秋傳》曰：“為人後者，為人子者。”

The Li Fu Zhuan says: "The major lineage may not be cut off. Why may a man of the same clan become an heir and be a son to another? It shows that a minor lineage may be cut off but the major lineage may not. Therefore he sets aside his own father and goes to the major lineage to be an heir, for the sake of honoring the ancestor, valuing not letting the major lineage be cut off." The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "One who becomes an heir to another is a son to him."

繼世諸侯無子又無弟，但有諸父庶兄當誰庶與兄推親之序也。王者受命而作，興滅國、繼絕世何？為先王無道，妄煞無辜，及嗣子幼弱，為強臣所奪，子孫皆無罪囚而絕，重其先人之功，故復立之。《論語》曰：“興滅國，繼絕世。”誅君之子不立者，義無所繼也。諸侯世位，象賢也，今親被誅絕也。《春秋傳》曰：“誅君之子立。”君見弒其子得立何？所以尊君、防篡弒。《春秋繼經》曰：“齊無知殺其君，貴妾子公子糾當立也。”

When a feudal lord who has inherited the line has neither a son nor a younger brother, but only paternal uncles and half-brothers, whom should be established is worked out by the order of closeness and distance. When a true king receives the mandate and rises, he revives destroyed states and continues broken lineages; why? Because the former king was without the Way and killed the innocent at will, or the heir was young and weak and was dispossessed by powerful ministers, so that the descendants, though blameless, were cut off; valuing the earlier ancestors' merit, he sets them up again. The Analects says: "Revive the destroyed states and continue the broken lineages." The son of a ruler who was executed is not established, because in terms of righteousness there is nothing for him to inherit. Feudal lords inherit rank and salary by taking their image from the worthy, but now the kin have already been wiped out by execution. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The son of an executed ruler is established." When a ruler is murdered, his son can be established; why? For the sake of honoring the ruler and preventing usurpation and regicide. The Chun Qiu Ji Jing says: "Wuzhi of Qi killed his ruler, and Prince Jiu, the son of a noble concubine, should have been established."

大夫功成，未封，子得封者，善善及子孫也。《春秋傳》曰：“賢者子孫宜有土地也。”

When a grand master has completed his achievements but has not yet been enfeoffed, his son may be enfeoffed; this is extending good deeds to descendants. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The descendants of a worthy man ought to have land."

周公不之魯何？為周公繼武王之業也。《春秋傳》曰：“周公曷為不之魯？欲天下一於周也。”《詩》云：“王(指周成王)曰叔父(指周公)，建爾元子，俾侯於魯。”周公身薨，天為之變，成王以天子禮葬之，命魯郊，以明至孝，天所興也。

Why did the Duke of Zhou not go to the state of Lu? Because the Duke of Zhou continued the work of King Wu. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Why did the Duke of Zhou not go to Lu? He wanted to unify the world under Zhou." The Book of Odes says: "The king (King Cheng of Zhou) said: Uncle (the Duke of Zhou), establish your eldest son, and let him be marquis in Lu." When the Duke of Zhou died, Heaven showed a prodigy on his account; King Cheng buried him with the rites of the Son of Heaven and allowed Lu to perform the suburban sacrifice, in order to show his utmost filial piety, which was raised up by Heaven.

王者必即土中者何？所以均教道，平往來，使善易以聞，為惡易以聞，明當懼慎，損於善惡。《尚書》曰：“王來紹上帝，自服於土中。”聖人承天而製作。尚書曰：“公不敢不敬天之休來相宅。”

Why must a true king settle at the center of the land? In order to even out instruction and transformation, so that going and coming, far and near, are the same; so that good is easily heard and evil is also easily heard, showing that one should be wary and cautious and make adjustments in good and evil. The Book of Documents says: "The king comes to continue the work of the Supreme Lord and himself serves in the center of the land." The sage creates in accordance with Heaven. The Book of Documents says: "The Duke dares not fail to reverence the blessing of Heaven, and has come to survey the site."

周家始封於何？后稷封於邰，公劉去邰之。《詩》云：“即有臺家室。”又曰：“篤公劉於斯觀。”周家五遷，其意一也，皆欲成其道也。時寧先皇者，不以諸侯移，必先請從然後行。

Where was the house of Zhou first enfeoffed? Hou Ji was enfeoffed in Tai, and Gong Liu left Tai for [a place name missing from the source, lost in transcription]. The Book of Odes says: "He had a household in Tai." It also says: "Earnest Gong Liu looked out over [the place missing from the source]." The house of Zhou moved five times with the same intent, all to fulfill their way. When it was a time of peace and the earlier kings were in place, they did not move of their own accord because of the feudal lords, but always first asked permission and went only after it was granted.

京師者，何謂也？千里之邑號也。京，大也；師，眾也。天子所居，故以大眾言之，明諸侯，法日月之徑千里。《春秋傳》曰：“京曰天子之居也。”《王制》曰：“天子之田方千里”。

What does "capital" (jingshi) mean? It is the name of a city of a thousand li. Jing means "great"; shi means "multitude." It is where the Son of Heaven dwells, so it is described by the great multitude, showing that the feudal lords model themselves on the sun and moon, whose diameter is a thousand li. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Jing refers to the residence of the Son of Heaven." The Wang Zhi says: "The Son of Heaven's fields are a thousand li square."

或曰：夏曰夏邑，殷曰商邑，周曰京師。《尚書》曰：“率割夏邑。”謂桀也。“在商邑。”謂殷也。

Some say: Xia was called the Xia city, Yin was called the Shang city, and Zhou was called the capital. The Book of Documents says: "He cut down the Xia city." This speaks of Jie. "In the Shang city." This speaks of Yin.

《王制》曰：“天子三公之田視公侯，卿視伯，大夫視子、男士視附庸。”上農夫食九人，其次食八人，其次食七人，其次食六人；下農夫食五人，庶人在官者，以是為差也。諸侯之下士，視上農夫，祿足以代其耕也；中士倍下士，上士倍中士，下大夫倍上士，卿四大夫祿，君十卿祿；次國之卿三大夫祿，君十卿祿；小國之卿倍上大夫祿，君十卿祿。天子之縣，內有百里之國九，七十里之國二十一，五十里之國六十三，凡九十三國。名山大澤不以封，其餘以祿士，以為閒田。

The Royal Regulations says: "The fields of the Three Ducal Ministers of the Son of Heaven are comparable to those of a Duke or Marquis; a Minister's to those of an Earl; a Grandee's to those of a Viscount; an Officer's to those of a dependent state." The best farmer feeds nine persons, the next eight, the next seven, the next six; the poorest farmer feeds five. Commoners who serve in government offices are paid according to these grades. A lower Officer of a feudal lord is comparable to the best farmer, with a stipend sufficient to replace his own farming; a middle Officer receives double that of a lower Officer, an upper Officer double that of a middle Officer, a lower Grandee double that of an upper Officer, a Minister four times a Grandee's stipend, and the ruler ten times a Minister's. In a middling state, a Minister receives three times a Grandee's stipend, and the ruler ten times a Minister's. In a small state, a Minister receives twice an upper Grandee's stipend, and the ruler ten times a Minister's. Within the royal domain: nine states of one hundred li, twenty-one states of seventy li, and sixty-three states of fifty li, ninety-three states in all. Famous mountains and great marshes are not granted as fiefs; the remainder is used to provide stipends for Officers, as reserve land.

諸侯入為公卿大夫，得食兩家菜不？日有能然後居其位，德加於人然後食其祿，所以尊賢重有德也。今以盛德人輔佐，兩食之何？故《王制》曰：“天子縣內，諸侯祿也；外諸侯，嗣也。”

When a feudal lord enters the court to serve as a Duke, Minister, or Grandee, may he draw the income of both fiefs? It is said that one holds a position because of ability, and enjoys a stipend because one's virtue reaches others; this is to honor the worthy and value the virtuous. Now, if one enters the court to assist the king by reason of great virtue and draws both incomes, why is this? Hence the Royal Regulations says: "Within the royal domain, the lands are the stipends of the feudal lords; outside the domain, the feudal lords are hereditary successors."

天子太子食菜者，儲君嗣主也，當有土以尊之也。太子食百里，與諸侯封同，故《禮》曰：“公士大夫子子也。”無爵而在大夫上，故知百里也。

The Crown Prince of the Son of Heaven draws income from a fief because he is the heir and successor, and should have land by which to be honored. The Crown Prince draws from one hundred li, the same as the enfeoffment of a feudal lord. Hence the Rites says: "The sons of Dukes, Officers, and Grandees are also called 'sons'." Though he holds no rank, he stands above the Grandees, so we know his fief is one hundred li.

公卿大夫皆食菜者，示與民同有無也。

That Dukes, Ministers, and Grandees all draw income from fiefs shows that they share in common with the people both abundance and want.

五行者，何謂也？謂金、木、水、火、土也。言行者，欲言為天行氣之義也。地之承天，猶妻之事夫，臣之事君也，謂其位卑。卑者親視事，故自周於一行，尊於天也。《尚書》：“一曰水，二曰火，三曰木，四曰金，五曰土。”水位在北方，北方者，陰氣在黃泉之下，任養萬物；水之為言淮也，陰化沾濡任生木。木在東方。東方者，陰陽氣始動，萬物始生。木之為言觸也，陽氣動躍，火在南方，南方者，陽在上，萬物垂枝。火之為言委隨也，言萬物佈施；火之為言化也，陽氣用事，萬物變化也。金在西方，西方者，陰始起，萬物禁止。金之為言禁也。土在中央者，主吐含萬物。土之為言吐也。何知東方生？《樂記》曰：“春生，夏長，秋收，冬藏。”土所以不名時，地，土別名也，比於五行最尊，故不自居部職也。《元命苞》曰：“土之為位而道在，故大不預化，人主不任部職。”

The Five Phases: what are they? They are Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth. They are called "phases" (xing, "moving") because they act on Heaven's behalf, moving its qi. Earth receives from Heaven, as a wife serves her husband or a minister serves his ruler, which indicates that its position is lowly. Those in lowly positions do the work personally, so each phase is complete in itself, and is closer to us than Heaven (while honor still rests with Heaven). The Book of Documents says: "First is Water, second Fire, third Wood, fourth Metal, fifth Earth." Water has its place in the north. In the north, yin qi lies beneath the Yellow Springs and is charged with nourishing the myriad things; "water" means "level" (zhun): yin qi transforms and moistens, and is charged with generating Wood. Wood is in the east. In the east, yin and yang qi first begin to stir and the myriad things begin to grow. "Wood" means "to touch" (chu): yang qi stirs and leaps up. Fire is in the south. In the south, yang is above and the myriad things hang their branches downward. "Fire" means "to yield" (wei sui), that is, the myriad things spread out; Fire also means "to transform" (hua), as yang qi holds sway and the myriad things change. Metal is in the west. In the west, yin begins to rise and the myriad things are restrained. "Metal" means "to prohibit" (jin). Earth is in the center and governs the spitting forth and holding within of the myriad things. "Earth" means "to spit forth" (tu). How do we know the east governs birth? The Record of Music says: "Spring brings forth, summer makes grow, autumn gathers in, winter stores up." The reason Earth is not assigned to a season is that the earth is simply another name for Earth, and is the most honored among the Five Phases, so it does not occupy any single office on its own. The Yuan Ming Bao says: "Earth occupies this position while the Way remains; therefore the great does not take part in particular changes, and the ruler of men does not hold any single office."

五行之性或上或下何？火者，陽也，尊，故上；水者，陰也，卑，故下；水者，少陽；金者，少陰，有中和之性，故可曲可直，從革；土者最大，苞含物，將生者出者，將歸者，不嫌清濁為萬物。《尚書》曰：“水曰潤下，火曰炎上，木曰曲直，金曰從革，土爰稼穡。”五行所以二陽三陰何？土尊，尊者配天，金木水火，陰陽自偶。

Among the Five Phases, some are by nature upward and some downward; why is this? Fire is yang and honored, so it rises; Water is yin and lowly, so it descends. Wood is lesser yang; Metal is lesser yin, with a nature of balance and harmony, so it can be bent or straightened and can also follow and be reshaped. Earth is the greatest and contains the myriad things: what is about to be born, what has come forth, and what is about to return, not minding the pure or the turbid, it forms all things. The Book of Documents says: "Water is called moistening and descending, Fire is called blazing and ascending, Wood is called bending and straightening, Metal is called yielding and reshaping, and Earth is for sowing and reaping." Why do the Five Phases have two yang and three yin? Earth is honored, and the honored matches Heaven; Metal, Wood, Water, and Fire pair up as yin and yang each in their own way.

水味所以鹹何？是其性也。所以北方鹹者，萬物鹹與，所以堅之也，猶五味得鹹乃堅也。木味所以酸何？東方，萬物之生也，酸者以達生也，猶五味得酸乃達也。火味所以苦何？南方主長養，苦者所以長養也，猶五味須苦可以養也。金味所以辛何？西方煞傷成物，辛所以煞傷之也，猶五味得辛乃委煞也。土味所以甘何？中央者，中和也，故甘，猶五味以甘為主也。《尚書》曰：“潤下作鹹，炎上作苦，曲直作酸，從革作辛，稼穡作甘。”北方其臭朽者何？，北方水，萬物所幽藏也，又水者受垢濁，故臭腐朽也。東方者木也，萬物新出地中，故其臭羶。南方者水也，盛陽承動，故其臭焦。西方者金也，萬物成熟，始復諾，故其臭腥。中央土也，主養，故其臭香也。《月令》曰：“東方其臭羶，南方其臭焦，中央其臭香，西方其臭腥，北方其臭朽。”所以名之為東方者，動方也，萬物始動生也。南方者，任養之方，萬物懷任也。西方者，遷方也，萬物遷落也。北方者，伏方也，萬物伏藏也。

Why is the flavor of Water salty? This is its nature. The north is salty because the myriad things all become salty with it, which firms them up, just as the five flavors become firm only when they get salt. Why is the flavor of Wood sour? The east is where the myriad things grow, and sourness helps growth to penetrate, just as the five flavors are brought through only with sourness. Why is the flavor of Fire bitter? The south governs growth and nurture; bitterness is used to nurture, just as the five flavors need bitterness to be nourished. Why is the flavor of Metal pungent? The west wounds and completes the myriad things; pungency is used to wound them, just as the five flavors wilt and are wounded only with pungency. Why is the flavor of Earth sweet? The center is balance and harmony, so it is sweet, just as sweetness is the chief of the five flavors. The Book of Documents says: "Moistening and descending produces saltiness, blazing and ascending produces bitterness, bending and straightening produces sourness, yielding and reshaping produces pungency, sowing and reaping produces sweetness." Why is the smell of the north rotten? The north is Water, where the myriad things lie hidden, and water also receives filth and turbidity, so its smell is rotten. The east is Wood, where the myriad things have just emerged from the ground, so its smell is rank like mutton. The south is Fire, where abundant yang takes over and stirs, so its smell is scorched. The west is Metal, where the myriad things ripen and begin to return, so its smell is fishy. The center is Earth, which governs nourishing, so its smell is fragrant. The Monthly Ordinances says: "The east's smell is rank, the south's scorched, the center's fragrant, the west's fishy, the north's rotten." The east is called "east" (dong) because it is the direction of stirring (dong), where the myriad things begin to stir and grow. The south is the direction of nurturing, where the myriad things are with child. The west is the direction of moving (qian), where the myriad things move and fall. The north is the direction of concealing (fu), where the myriad things lie hidden.

少陽見寅，寅者，演也，律中大蔟，律之言率，所以率氣令生也；卯者，茂也，律中夾鍾；衰於辰，辰震也，律中姑洗。其日甲乙者，萬物孚甲也；乙者，物蕃屈有節慾出。時為春，春之為言蠢蠢動也。位在東方。其色青。其音角，角者，氣動耀也。其帝太，者，大起萬物擾也。其神勾芒者，物之始生，其精青龍，芒之為言萌也。

Lesser yang appears at Yin (the third branch). "Yin" means "to extend" (yan). Its pitch-pipe is Taicu. "Pipe" (lu) means "to lead" (shuai): it leads qi so that it grows. Mao (the fourth branch) means "lush" (mao), and its pipe is Jiazhong. Decline comes at Chen (the fifth branch). "Chen" means "to quake" (zhen), and its pipe is Guxian. Its days are Jia and Yi: Jia is the myriad things sprouting from their husks; Yi is things flourishing, bending, with nodes about to emerge. Its season is spring. "Spring" means wriggling into motion. Its position is the east. Its color is green-blue. Its note is Jue. "Jue" is qi stirring and shining forth. Its emperor is Tai [a rare character lost in the source text during transcription], which means great arising, the myriad things stirring. Its spirit is Gou Mang, which is things beginning to grow. Its essence is the Azure Dragon. "Mang" means "sprout".

陰中陽故，太陽見於巳，巳者物必起，律中仲呂；壯盛於午，午物滿長，律中蕤賓；衰於未，未味也，律中林鐘。其日丙丁者，其物炳明丁者，強也。時為夏，夏之言大也。位在南方。其色赤。其音徵，徵，止也，陽度極也。其帝炎帝者，太陽也。其神祝融，祝融者，屬續。其精為鳥，離為鸞。

Because there is yang within yin, greater yang appears at Si (the sixth branch). "Si" means that things must rise, and its pipe is Zhonglu. Vigor comes at Wu (the seventh branch). "Wu" means things are fully grown, and its pipe is Ruibin. Decline comes at Wei (the eighth branch). "Wei" means flavor (wei), and its pipe is Linzhong. Its days are Bing and Ding: Bing is things shining bright; Ding is strength. Its season is summer. "Summer" means great. Its position is the south. Its color is red. Its note is Zhi. "Zhi" means to stop, for the numbers of yang have reached their limit. Its emperor is Yan Di, who is Greater Yang. Its spirit is Zhu Rong. "Zhu Rong" means continuing and joining. Its essence is the bird; the Li hexagram is the luan bird.

故少陰見於申，申者，身也，律中夷則；壯於酉，酉者，老物收斂，律中南呂；衰於戌，戌者，滅也，律中無射，無射者，無聲也。其日庚辛，庚者，物更也；辛者，陰始成。時為秋，秋之為言愁亡也。其位西方。其色白。其音商，商者，強也。其神少，少者，少斂也。其神蓐收，蓐收者，縮也。其精白虎，虎之為言搏討也。

Therefore lesser yin appears at Shen (the ninth branch). "Shen" means the body, and its pipe is Yize. Vigor comes at You (the tenth branch). "You" means old things gathering in, and its pipe is Nanlu. Decline comes at Xu (the eleventh branch). "Xu" means to extinguish, and its pipe is Wuyi. "Wuyi" means without sound. Its days are Geng and Xin: Geng is things changing; Xin is yin beginning to complete. Its season is autumn. "Autumn" means sorrow and loss. Its position is the west. Its color is white. Its note is Shang. "Shang" means strength. Its emperor is Shao [a rare character lost in the source text during transcription]. "Shao [lost character]" means lesser gathering. Its spirit is Ru Shou. "Ru Shou" means to contract. Its essence is the White Tiger. "Tiger" means to seize and attack.

故太陰見於亥，亥者，仰也，律中應鐘；壯於子，於子者，孳也，律中黃鐘；衰於醜，醜者，紐也，律中大呂。其日壬癸，壬者，陰始任；癸者，揆揆度。可揆度也。時為冬，冬之為言終也。其位在北方。其音羽，羽之為言舒，言萬物始孳。其帝顓頊，顓頊者，寒縮也。其神玄冥，玄冥者，入冥也。其精玄武，掩起離體泉，龜蛟珠蛤。

Therefore greater yin appears at Hai (the twelfth branch). "Hai" means to look up, and its pipe is Yingzhong. Vigor comes at Zi (the first branch). "Zi" means to multiply, and its pipe is Huangzhong. Decline comes at Chou (the second branch). "Chou" means to knot, and its pipe is Dalu. Its days are Ren and Gui: Ren is yin beginning to take charge; Gui is to measure, that which can be measured. Its season is winter. "Winter" means the end. Its position is the north. Its note is Yu. "Yu" means to unfold, that is, the myriad things begin to multiply. Its emperor is Zhuan Xu. "Zhuan Xu" means cold and contracted. Its spirit is Xuan Ming. "Xuan Ming" means entering the darkness. Its essence is the Black Tortoise, covering, shedding, springs, and the turtle, the dragon-serpent, pearls, and clams.

土為中宮。其日戊己，戊者，茂也；己抑屈起。其音宮，宮者，中也。其帝黃帝。其神后土。

Earth is the central palace. Its days are Wu and Ji: Wu is lush; Ji is bending down and rising up. Its note is Gong. "Gong" means the center. Its emperor is the Yellow Emperor. Its spirit is Hou Tu.

《月令》云：十一月律謂之黃鐘何？中和之色；鍾者，動也。言陽氣動於黃泉之下，動養萬物也。

The Monthly Ordinances says that the pipe of the eleventh month is called Huangzhong. Why? "Huang" (yellow) is the color of balance and harmony; "zhong" (bell) means to stir. This says that yang qi stirs beneath the Yellow Springs, and in stirring nurtures the myriad things.

十二月律之謂之大呂何？大，大也；呂者，拒也。言陽氣欲出，陰不許也。呂之為言拒者，旅抑拒難之也。

Why is the pipe of the twelfth month called Dalu? "Da" means great; "lu" means to resist. This says that yang qi wants to come out, but yin does not allow it. "Lu" means resist, as in lodging, restraining, and resisting and making difficult.

正月律謂之太蔟何？太，亦大也；蔟者，湊也。言萬物始大，湊地而出也。

Why is the pipe of the first month called Taicu? "Tai" also means great; "cu" means to gather. This says that the myriad things begin to grow large, gathering and pushing up out of the earth.

二月律謂之夾鍾何？夾者，孚甲也，言萬物孚甲，種類分也。

Why is the pipe of the second month called Jiazhong? "Jia" means husk, that is, the myriad things burst from their husks and their kinds separate.

三月謂之姑洗何？姑者，故也；洗者，鮮也。言萬物皆去故就其新，莫不鮮明也。

Why is the third month called Guxian? "Gu" means old; "xian" means fresh. This says that the myriad things all shed the old and take on the new, and none is not fresh and bright.

四月謂之仲呂何？言陽氣極將，彼故復中難之也。

Why is the fourth month called Zhonglu? This says that yang qi has reached its extreme and is about to pass, so it is again obstructed from the middle.

五月謂之蕤賓，蕤者，下也；賓者，敬也。言陽氣上極，陰氣始，賓敬之也。

The fifth month is called Ruibin. "Rui" means to descend; "bin" means to respect. This says that when yang qi has risen to its extreme and yin qi begins, it is respected with the courtesy due a guest.

六月謂之林鐘何？林者，眾也，萬物成熟，種類眾多。

Why is the sixth month called Linzhong? "Lin" means many: the myriad things ripen and their kinds are numerous.

七月謂之夷則何？夷，傷也；則，法也。言萬物始傷，被刑法也。

Why is the seventh month called Yize? "Yi" means to wound; "ze" means law. This says that the myriad things begin to be wounded and suffer punishment.

八月謂之南呂何？南者，任也，言陽氣尚有，任生薺麥也，故陰拒之也。

Why is the eighth month called Nanlu? "Nan" means to bear a charge. This says that yang qi still remains and is charged with growing shepherd's purse and wheat, so yin comes to resist it.

九月謂之無射何？射者，終也。言萬物隨陽而終，當復隨陰而起，無有終已也。

Why is the ninth month called Wuyi? "Yi" means to end. This says that the myriad things end following yang, and must rise again following yin, without ceasing.

十月謂之應鐘何？應者，應也；鍾者，動也。言萬物應陽而動下藏也。

Why is the tenth month called Yingzhong? "Ying" means to respond; "zhong" means to stir. This says that the myriad things respond to yang and stir, going down to hide below.

五行所以更王何？以其轉相生，故有終始也。木生火，火生土，土生金，金生水，水生木。是以木王，火相，土死，金囚，水休，王所勝老死、囚，故王者休。見王火相何？以知為臣，土所以死者，子為父報仇者也。五行之子慎之物歸母，木王火相，金成，其火ㄡ金。金生水，水滅火，報其理；火生土，土則害水，莫能而御。

Why do the Five Phases take turns reigning? Because they give birth to one another in a cycle, they have an end and a beginning. Wood generates Fire, Fire generates Earth, Earth generates Metal, Metal generates Water, Water generates Wood. Thus when Wood reigns, Fire is the minister, Earth is dead, Metal is imprisoned, and Water is at rest. What the reigning one overcomes is aged and imprisoned, so the reigning one rests. Seeing the reigning phase and the ministering Fire, why is this so? It is how we know what it is to be a minister. Why does Earth die? A son avenges his father. The sons of the Five Phases are cautious, and things return to their mother. When Wood reigns, Fire is the minister, and Metal is complete, then Fire overcomes Metal. Metal generates Water, and Water extinguishes Fire, repaying this principle; Fire generates Earth, and Earth then harms Water, and nothing can resist it.

五行所以相害者，天地之性，眾勝寡，故水勝火也；精勝堅，故火勝金；剛勝柔，故金勝木；專勝散，故木勝土；實勝虛，故土勝水也。火陽，君之象也；水陰，臣之義也。臣所以勝其君何？此謂無道之君也，故為眾陰所害，猶紂王也。是使水得施行，金以蓋之，土以應之，欲溫則溫，欲寒，亦何從得害火乎？曰：五行各自有陰陽，木生火所以還燒其母何？曰金勝木，火欲為木害金。金者，堅強難消，故母以遜體助火燒金，此自欲成子之義。又陽道不相離，故為兩盛火死子乃繼之。

The reason the Five Phases harm one another lies in the nature of Heaven and Earth: the many overcome the few, so Water overcomes Fire; the refined overcomes the hard, so Fire overcomes Metal; the firm overcomes the soft, so Metal overcomes Wood; the concentrated overcomes the scattered, so Wood overcomes Earth; the solid overcomes the empty, so Earth overcomes Water. Fire is yang and the image of the ruler; Water is yin and the principle of the minister. Why can a minister overcome his ruler? This speaks of a ruler without the Way, who is therefore harmed by the many yin, like King Zhou. If Water were allowed to act, Metal would cover it and Earth would answer it, so that it be warm when it should be warm; and if it were cold, from where could it harm Fire? It is said: each of the Five Phases has its own yin and yang. Wood generates Fire, so why does Fire in turn burn its mother? It is said that Metal overcomes Wood, and Fire wants to harm Metal on behalf of Wood. Metal is hard and difficult to melt, so the mother yields her body to help Fire burn Metal; this is the principle of completing one's own son. Moreover, the way of yang does not part from itself, so the two flourish together, and when Fire dies its son continues.

木王所以七十二日何？土王四季，各十八日，合九十日為一時，王九十日。土所以王四季何？木非土不生，火非土不榮，金非土不成，水無土不高。土扶微助衰，歷成其道，故五行更王，亦須土也。王四季，居中央不名時。五行何以知同時起？醜訖義相生。《傳》曰：“五行並起赴，各以名別。”陽氣陰煞，火中無生物，水中反有生物何？生者以內火，陰在內，故不生也。水、火獨一種，金、木多品何？以為南北陰陽之極也，得其極故一也；東西非其極也，故非一也。

Why does Wood reign for seventy-two days? Earth reigns eighteen days in each of the four seasons, which together make ninety days, one season, and Earth reigns for ninety days. Why does Earth reign in the four seasons? Wood without Earth is not born, Fire without Earth does not flourish, Metal without Earth is not completed, Water without Earth does not rise high. Earth supports the weak, helps the declining, and refines and perfects their Way; so when the Five Phases take turns reigning, they also need Earth. Earth reigns in the four seasons and dwells in the center, and is not assigned to a season. How do we know that the Five Phases arise at the same time? Finishing from Chou, they give birth to one another according to principle. The Commentary says: "The Five Phases arise together and rush forth, each distinguished by its own name." Yang qi and yin killing: there is no living thing in Fire, yet in Water there are living things; why is this? What can give birth does so because Fire is within; yin is within, so it does not give birth. Why do Water and Fire have only one kind each, while Metal and Wood have many kinds? Because south and north are the extremes of yin and yang, and having the extreme, each is one; east and west are not extremes, so they are not one.

水、木可食，金、火、土不可食何？木者陽，陽者施生，故可食；火者，陰在內，金者陰嗇吝，故不可食。

Water and Wood can be eaten, but Metal, Fire, and Earth cannot; why? Wood is yang, and yang gives life, so it can be eaten; Fire has yin within, and Metal is yin and stingy, so they cannot be eaten.

火、水所以殺人何？水盛氣也，故入而殺人；火陰在內，故殺人壯於水也；金木微氣，故不能自殺人也。火不可入其中者，陰在內也，入則殺人矣。水、土陽在內，故可入其中。金、木微氣也，精密不可得入也。

Why can Fire and Water kill people? Water is an abundant qi, so entering it kills people; Fire has yin within, so it kills people more fiercely than Water; Metal and Wood are subtle qi, so they cannot kill by themselves. Fire cannot be entered because yin is within, and entering it kills. Water and Earth have yang within, so they can be entered. Metal and Wood are subtle qi, fine and dense, and cannot be entered.

水、火不可加人功為用，金、木加人功何？火者盛陽，水者盛陰者也。氣盛不變，故不可加人功為人用。金木者不能自成，故須人加功，以為人用也。

Water and Fire cannot have human work added to them to be put to use, while Metal and Wood can have human work added; why? Fire is abundant yang, and Water is abundant yin. Their qi is abundant and does not change, so human work cannot be added to make them useful. Metal and Wood cannot complete themselves, so they need people to work them in order to be used.

五行之性，火熱水寒，有溫水，無寒火何？明臣可為君，君不可更為臣。五行常在，火乍亡何？水太陰也，刑者故常在。金少陰，木少陽，微氣無變，故亦常在火。太陽精微，人君之象。象尊常藏，猶天子居九重之內，臣下衛之也。藏於木者，依於仁也，木自主金，須人取之乃成，陰卑不能自成也。木所以浮，金所以沉何？子生於母之義。肝所以沉，肺所以浮何？有知者尊其母也。一說木畏金，金之妻庚，受庚之化，木者法其本，柔可曲直，故浮也，肝法其化，直，故沉。五行皆同義。

In the nature of the Five Phases, Fire is hot and Water is cold; there is warm water, but no cold fire. Why? It shows that a minister can become a ruler, but a ruler cannot again become a minister. The Five Phases are always present, yet Fire suddenly vanishes; why? Water is greater yin, the punisher, so it is always present. Metal is lesser yin and Wood is lesser yang; their subtle qi does not change, so they too are always present. Fire is greater yang, subtle and fine, the image of the ruler. The image is honored and always hidden, like the Son of Heaven dwelling within nine layers of palace, guarded by his ministers. It hides in Wood, relying on benevolence. Wood itself governs Metal, and needs people to take it to complete it; yin is lowly and cannot complete itself. Why does Wood float and Metal sink? This is the principle of the child born of the mother. Why does the liver sink and the lung float? A person of knowledge honors his mother. One view says Wood fears Metal; the wife of Metal is Geng, and Metal receives Geng's transformation; Wood takes after its root, and being soft can bend and straighten, so it floats; the liver takes after its transformation, being straight, so it sinks. The Five Phases all follow this principle.

天子所以內明而外昧，人所以外明而內昧何？明天人慾相向而治也。行有五、時有四何？四時為時、五行為節，故木王即謂之春，金王即謂之秋，土尊不任職，君不居部，故時有四也。子不肯禪何法？法四時火不興土而興金也。父死子繼何法？法木終火王也。兄死弟及何法？夏之承春也。善善及子孫何法？法春生待夏復長也。惡惡止其身何法？法秋煞不待冬也。主幼臣攝政何法？法土用事於季孟之間也。子之復讎，何法？法土勝水、水勝火也。子順父、臣順君、妻順夫何法？法地順天也。

Why is the Son of Heaven bright within and dim without, while ordinary people are bright without and dim within? It shows that Heaven and man must be governed in correspondence. Why are there five phases but four seasons? The four seasons serve as time and the Five Phases as its divisions, so when Wood reigns it is called spring, and when Metal reigns it is called autumn; Earth is honored and holds no office, and the ruler does not occupy a department, so there are four seasons. A son who is unwilling to cede the throne takes after what? He takes after the four seasons, where Fire does not raise Earth but raises Metal. A son succeeding his father who has died takes after what? He takes after Wood ending and Fire reigning. A younger brother succeeding his elder brother who has died takes after what? He takes after summer succeeding spring. Rewarding the good extends to descendants; this takes after what? It takes after spring's birth waiting for summer's growth. Punishing the bad stops with the person himself; this takes after what? It takes after autumn's killing, which does not wait for winter. A young ruler with a minister as regent takes after what? It takes after Earth acting between the last and first months of the seasons. A son avenging his father takes after what? It takes after Earth overcoming Water and Water overcoming Fire. A son obeying his father, a minister his ruler, a wife her husband takes after what? It takes after Earth obeying Heaven.

男不離父母何法？法火不離木也。女離父母何法？法水流去金也。娶妻親迎何法？法日入，陽下陰也。君讓臣何法？法月三十日，名其功也。善稱君、過稱己何法？法陰陽共敘共生，陽名生，陰名煞。臣有功歸於君何法？法歸明於日也。臣法君何法？法金正木也。子諫父何法？法火揉直木也。臣諫君不從則去何法？法水潤下、達於上也。君子遠子近孫何法？法木遠火近土也。親屬臣諫不相去何法？法水木枝葉不相離也。父為子隱何法？法木之藏火也。子為父隱何法？法水逃金也。君有眾民何法？法天有眾星也。王者賜先親近、後疏遠何法？法天雨，高者先得之也。□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□

A son does not leave his parents; this takes after what? It takes after Fire not leaving Wood. A daughter leaves her parents; this takes after what? It takes after water flowing away from Metal. Going in person to receive the bride takes after what? It takes after the sun setting, yang descending to yin. A ruler yielding to his minister takes after what? It takes after the thirtieth day of the month, naming the minister's merit. Attributing goodness to the ruler and fault to oneself takes after what? It takes after yin and yang jointly ordering and generating, yang being named generation and yin killing. A minister's merit being credited to the ruler takes after what? It takes after attributing brightness to the sun. A minister following his ruler takes after what? It takes after Metal straightening Wood. A son remonstrating with his father takes after what? It takes after Fire straightening bent Wood. A minister who leaves when his remonstrance is not heeded takes after what? It takes after Water moistening downward and reaching upward. A gentleman keeping his son at a distance and his grandson close takes after what? It takes after Wood being far from Fire and near to Earth. Relatives and ministers not leaving each other in remonstrance takes after what? It takes after Water and the branches and leaves of Wood not separating. A father concealing for his son takes after what? It takes after Wood hiding Fire. A son concealing for his father takes after what? It takes after Water evading Metal. A ruler having many people takes after what? It takes after Heaven having many stars. A king rewarding first those near and then those far takes after what? It takes after Heaven sending rain, with high places receiving it first. [a character is damaged in the source text]

長幼何法？法四時有孟、仲、季也。朋友何法？法水合流相承也。父母生子養長子何法？法水生木長大也。子養父母何法？法夏養長木，此火養母也。不以父命廢主命何法？法金不畏土而畏火。陽舒陰急何法？法日行遲月行疾也。有分土無分民何法？法四時各有分而所生者通也。若言東，東方天下皆生也。君一娶九女何法？法九州象天之施也。不娶同姓何法？法五行異類乃相生也。子喪父母何法？法木不見水則憔悴也。喪三年何法？法三年一閏，天道終也。父喪子、夫喪妻何法？法一歲物有終始，天氣亦為之變也。年六十閉房何法？法六月陽氣衰也。人有五藏六府何法？法五行六合也。人目何法？法日月明也。日照晝，月照夜，人目所不更照何法？目亦更用事也。王者監二王之後何法？法木須金以正，須水以潤也。明王先賞後罰何法？法四時先生後煞也。

The order of old and young takes after what? It takes after the four seasons having first, middle, and last months. Friends take after what? They take after waters joining and flowing on together. Parents bearing and raising a child takes after what? It takes after Water generating Wood and making it grow. A child supporting his parents takes after what? It takes after summer nurturing Wood, which is Fire nourishing its mother. Not setting aside the ruler's command because of the father's command takes after what? It takes after Metal not fearing Earth but fearing Fire. Yang is slow and yin is quick, taking after what? It takes after the sun moving slowly and the moon moving quickly. Dividing land but not dividing people takes after what? It takes after each of the four seasons having its own share while what is born in them is shared. If one speaks of the east, the whole world in the east grows. A ruler marrying nine women at once takes after what? It takes after the Nine Provinces, an image of Heaven's bestowing. Not marrying one of the same surname takes after what? It takes after the Five Phases, of different kinds, giving birth to each other. A child mourning his parents takes after what? It takes after Wood withering when it cannot see Water. Mourning for three years takes after what? It takes after a leap month every three years, when the Way of Heaven reaches completion. A father mourning a son or a husband mourning a wife takes after what? It takes after things in a year having an end and a beginning, and the qi of Heaven changing for this reason. At sixty closing the bedroom door takes after what? It takes after the yang qi declining in the sixth month. People having five viscera and six bowels takes after what? It takes after the Five Phases and the Six Conjunctions. People's eyes take after what? They take after the brightness of sun and moon. The sun shines by day and the moon by night, and the eyes no longer shine at those times; this takes after what? It takes after the eyes also taking turns in service. A king examining the descendants of the two previous dynasties takes after what? It takes after Wood needing Metal to straighten it and Water to moisten it. A wise king rewarding first and punishing after takes after what? It takes after the four seasons giving birth first and killing after.

國有三軍何？所以戒非常，伐無道，尊宗廟，重社稷，安不忘危也。何以言有三軍也？《論語》曰：“子行三軍，則誰與？”《詩》云：“周王於邁，六師及之。”三軍者何法？法天、地、人也。以為五人為伍，五伍為兩，四兩為卒，五卒為旅，五旅為師，師二千五百人，師為一軍，六師一萬五千人也。《傳》曰：“一人必死，十人不能當；百人必死，千人不能當；千人必死，萬人不能當；萬人必死，橫行天下。”雖有萬人，猶謙讓自以為不足，故復加五千人，因法月數。月者，群陰之長也。十二月足以窮盡陰陽備物成功。二千人亦足以征伐不義，致太平也。《穀梁傳》曰：“天子有六軍，諸侯上國三軍，次國二軍，下國一軍。”諸侯所以一軍者何？諸侯，蕃屏之臣也，任兵革之重，距一方之難，故得有一軍也。

Why does a state have three armies? To guard against extraordinary events, to punish those without the Way, to honor the ancestral temples, to value the altars of soil and grain, and to not forget danger in times of peace. How do we know there are three armies? The Analects says: "If you led three armies, whom would you take with you?" The Book of Odes says: "When the King of Zhou marches out, the six divisions follow him." What do the three armies model? They model Heaven, Earth and Man. Five men make a squad, five squads make a platoon, four platoons make a company, five companies make a battalion, and five battalions make a division; a division is 2,500 men, a division makes one army, and six divisions are 15,000 men. The Commentary says: "If one man is resolved to die, ten cannot withstand him; if a hundred are resolved to die, a thousand cannot withstand them; if a thousand are resolved to die, ten thousand cannot withstand them; if ten thousand are resolved to die, they can roam across the world." Even with ten thousand men, he is modest and considers it not enough, so he adds another five thousand, and thereby models the number of months. The month is the chief of the many yin. Twelve months suffice to exhaust yin and yang and to prepare things and complete the work. Fifteen thousand men are likewise sufficient to punish the unrighteous and bring about peace. The Guliang Commentary says: "The Son of Heaven has six armies, a feudal lord of a great state has three armies, a medium state has two armies, and a lesser state has one army." Why does a feudal lord have at least one army? Feudal lords are ministers who serve as a protective screen, bearing the heavy duty of arms and armor and resisting the calamities of one region, so they can have one army.

王者征伐，所以必皮弁素幘何？伐者凶事，素服，示有悽愴也。伐者質，故衣古服。《禮》曰：“三王共皮弁素幘，服亦皮素幘，又招虞人，亦皮弁。”知伐亦皮。

Why must a true king, when going on a punitive expedition, wear the leather cap and plain headcloth? A punitive expedition is a grim affair, so he wears plain clothing to show sorrow. A campaign is a matter of simplicity, so he wears ancient dress. The Book of Rites says: "The Three Kings all used the leather cap and plain headcloth." His dress is also the leather cap and plain headcloth, and when he summons the forester he also wears the leather cap. From this we know that a punitive expedition also uses the leather cap.

王者將出，辭於禰；還，格祖、禰者，言子辭面之禮，尊親之義也。《王制》曰：“王者將出，類於上帝，宜於社，造於禰。”《尚書》曰：“歸假於藝祖。”出所以告天？至告祖無二元后。廟後告者。示不敢留尊者之命也。告天何。示不敢自專也，非出辭反面之道也，與宗廟異義。還不復告天者，天道質無內外，故不復告也。《尚書》言：“歸假於祖禰。”不見告於天，知不告也。

When a true king is about to set out, he takes leave in the temple of his deceased father; on returning, he goes to the ancestral temple and his father's temple. This is the ritual of a son taking leave face to face and the principle of honoring one's parents. The Wang Zhi says: "When the king is about to set out, he performs the lei sacrifice to the Supreme Lord, the yi sacrifice at the altar of the soil, and announces it at his father's temple." The Book of Documents says: "On returning, he arrived at the temple of the Accomplished Ancestor and made his announcement." He announces to Heaven when he sets out and to the ancestors when he returns; there is no second sovereign. Going to the temple first and announcing afterwards shows that he does not dare detain the order of his elders. Announcing to Heaven shows that he does not dare act on his own authority; it is not the way of taking leave and reporting back, which differs from the principle of the ancestral temple. He does not announce to Heaven again on returning, because the way of Heaven is simple and has no inside or outside, so no further announcement is made. The Book of Documents says: "He returned and reported to the ancestors and fathers." Since no announcement to Heaven is seen, we know it was not made.

王者受命，質家先伐，文家先正何？質家之天命己也，使己誅無道，今誅，得為王，故先伐。文家言天命已成，為王者乃得誅伐王者耳，故先改正朔也。又改正朔者，文代其質也。文者先其文，質者先其質，故《論語》曰：“予小子履，敢昭告於皇天上帝。”此湯伐桀告天，用尤家之法也。《詩》云：“命此文王，於周於京。”此言文王誅伐，故改號為周，易邑為京也，明天著忠臣孝子之義也。湯親北面稱臣而事桀，不忍相誅也。《禮》曰：“湯放桀，武伐紂時也。”

When a true king receives the mandate, the schools of simplicity punish first and the schools of refinement correct the calendar first; why? The school of simplicity holds that the mandate of Heaven is already upon itself, letting itself punish the one without the Way; now that the punishment has been carried out, it can become king, so it punishes first. The school of refinement says that the mandate of Heaven has already been fulfilled, and only after becoming king can one punish those who are kings, so it first reforms the calendar and the first month of the year. Moreover, reforming the calendar means refinement taking the place of the preceding simplicity. The refined put their refinement first, and the simple put their simplicity first, so the Analects says: "I, the little child Lu, dare to announce clearly to the August Heaven and the Supreme Lord." This is Tang announcing to Heaven in his campaign against Jie, using the method of the school of simplicity. The Book of Odes says: "The mandate was given to King Wen, in Zhou and in Jing." This means that King Wen carried out the punishment, so he changed the name to Zhou and changed the city to Jing. It shows that Heaven manifests the righteousness of loyal ministers and filial sons. Tang himself faced north and served Jie as a subject, and could not bear for them to punish each other. The Book of Rites says: "Tang banished Jie and King Wu attacked Zhou; that was the time for it."

王法天誅者，天子自出者，以為王者乃天之所立，而欲謀危社稷，故自出，重天命也。犯王法，使方伯誅之。《尚書》曰：“命予惟恭行天之罰。”此所以言開自出伐有扈也。《王制》曰：“賜之弓矢，乃得專征伐。”犯王誅者也。

The king takes Heaven as his model in punishing: the Son of Heaven goes out in person because he holds that the king is established by Heaven, and when someone plans to endanger the altars of soil and grain, he goes in person, valuing the mandate of Heaven. For those who violate the royal law, he sends a Regional Chief to punish them. The Book of Documents says: "He ordered me to carry out reverently the punishment of Heaven." This refers to Qi going in person to attack Youhu. The Wang Zhi says: "Only when bestowed bow and arrows can one launch punitive campaigns on one's own authority." This refers to those who violate the royal punishment.

大夫將兵出，必不御者，欲盛其威，使士卒一意繫心也。故但聞將軍令，不聞君命也，明進退大夫也。《春秋傳》曰：“此受命於君，如伐齊則還何？大其不伐喪也。”大夫以君命出，進退在大夫也。

When a grand master leads troops out, he must not be controlled from afar, in order to enhance his authority and make the soldiers single-minded, their hearts having something to hold to. So they hear only the general's orders and do not hear the ruler's command, showing that advancing and withdrawing rest with the grand master. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "This was a mission received from the ruler; if he set out to attack Qi but came back, why? He is praised for not attacking a state in mourning." A grand master goes out on the ruler's order, but advancing and withdrawing rest with the grand master.

天子遣將軍必於廟何？示不敢自專也。獨於祖廟何？製法度者祖也。《王制》曰：“受命於祖，受成於學。”此言於祖廟命遣之也。

When the Son of Heaven dispatches a general, he must do so in the temple; why? To show that he does not dare act on his own authority. Why only in the ancestral temple? Because the one who established the regulations was the ancestor. The Wang Zhi says: "He receives the commission from the ancestors and receives the completed plan at the school." This means that the commission is given in the ancestral temple.

王法年此受兵何？重不絕人嗣也。師行不必勝，故須其有世嗣。年六十歸兵者何？不忍並鬥人父子也。《王制》曰：“六十不預服戎。”又曰：“八十一子不從政，九十家不從政，父母之喪三年不從政，齊衰、大功三月不從政，廢疾非人不養者一人不從政。”

Why does the royal law take men into military service only at this age? Because it values not cutting off a man's line of descent. A campaign does not necessarily win, so it requires that he have a successor. Why is a man returned from military service at sixty? Because one cannot bear to make father and son fight together. The Wang Zhi says: "At sixty, one does not take part in military affairs." It also says: "At eighty, one son is exempt from public service; at ninety, the whole family is exempt; during mourning for parents, one is exempt for three years; for mourning in the second and third degrees, one is exempt for three months; for a household that has a disabled person who cannot be cared for without help, one person is exempt."

古者師出不逾時者，為怨思也。天道一時生。一時養。人者，天之貴物也。逾時則內有怨女。外有曠夫。《詩》云：“昔我往矣，楊柳依依；今我來思，雨雪霏霏。”《春秋》曰：“宋人取長葛。”《傳》曰：“外取邑不書，此何以書？久也。”

In ancient times a campaign did not exceed one season, out of consideration for resentment and longing. The way of Heaven is that one season gives birth and one season nurtures. Man is the creature that Heaven values. If a campaign goes beyond the season, there will be resentful wives within and lonely husbands without. The Book of Odes says: "When I left, the willows were swaying; now I return, the rain and snow are falling thick." The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "The men of Song took Changge." The Commentary says: "Taking a city abroad is not recorded; why is it recorded here? Because it took a long time."

王者有三年之喪，夷狄有內侵伐之者，重天誅，為宗廟社稷也。《春秋傳》曰：“天王居狄泉。”《傳》曰：“此未三年，其稱天王何？著有天子也。”

When a true king is in the three-year mourning and the barbarians invade from within, he nonetheless punishes them, valuing Heaven's punishment for the sake of the ancestral temple and the altars of soil and grain. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The Heavenly King resided at Digquan." The Commentary says: "This was not yet three years, yet he is called the Heavenly King; why? To make clear that there is a Son of Heaven."

誅不避親戚何？所以尊君卑臣，強幹弱枝，明善惡善惡之義也。《春秋傳》曰：“季子煞其母兄，何善？示誅不避母兄，君臣之義。”《尚書》曰：“肆朕誕以爾東征。”誅弟也。

Why does punishment not avoid relatives? To honor the ruler and humble the minister, to strengthen the trunk and weaken the branches, and to make clear the principle of good and evil. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Jizi killed his mother's brother; what was good in that? It shows that punishment does not avoid a mother's brother, which is the righteousness between ruler and minister." The Book of Documents says: "Therefore I will lead you on the eastern campaign." This is punishing a younger brother.

諸侯有三年之喪，有罪且不誅何？君子恕己，哀孝子之思慕，不忍加刑罰。《春秋傳》曰：“晉士丐帥師侵齊至谷，聞齊侯卒，乃還。”《傳》曰：“大其不伐喪也。”

When a feudal lord is in the three-year mourning, he is for the time being not punished even if he has committed a crime; why? A gentleman extends his own feelings to others and pities the filial son's longing, and cannot bear to impose punishment. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Shi Gai of Jin led troops to invade Qi; on reaching Gu, he heard that the Marquis of Qi had died and turned back." The Commentary says: "He is praised for not attacking a state in mourning."

諸侯之義，非天子之命，不得動眾起兵誅不義者，所以強幹弱枝，尊天子，卑諸侯。《論語》曰：“天下有道，則禮樂、征伐自天子出；天下無道，則禮樂、征伐自諸侯出。”世無聖賢方伯，諸侯有相滅者，力能救者可也。《論語》曰：“陳恆弒其君，孔子沐浴而朝，請討之。”王者侯之子篡弒其君而立，臣下得誅之者，廣討賊之義也。《春秋傳》曰：“臣弒君，臣不討賊，非臣也。”又曰：“蔡世子班弒其君，楚子誅之。”

As for the righteousness of feudal lords, without the Son of Heaven's order they may not mobilize the multitude and raise troops to punish the unrighteous, in order to strengthen the trunk, weaken the branches, honor the Son of Heaven and humble the feudal lords. The Analects says: "When the Way prevails in the world, rites, music and punitive expeditions proceed from the Son of Heaven; when the Way does not prevail in the world, rites, music and punitive expeditions proceed from the feudal lords." When the world has no sage Regional Chief, and feudal lords destroy one another, it is permissible for one whose strength can rescue. The Analects says: "Chen Heng murdered his ruler; Confucius bathed and went to court and asked that he be punished." When the son of a king or a lord usurps and murders his ruler and takes the throne, his subordinates may punish him, which extends the righteousness of punishing traitors. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "If a minister murders his ruler and the ministers do not punish the traitor, then they are not ministers." It also says: "Ban, the heir of Cai, murdered his ruler, and the Viscount of Chu executed him."

王者受命而起，諸侯有臣弒君而立，當誅君身死，子不得繼者，以其逆，無所天也。《詩》云：“毋封靡於爾邦，惟王其崇之。”此言追誅大罪也。或盜天子土地，自立為諸侯，絕之而已。

When a true king receives the mandate and rises, if a feudal lord's minister murders the lord and takes his place, he ought to be punished, and the lord having died, the son cannot succeed, because he is rebellious and has nothing to receive from Heaven. The Book of Odes says: "Do not commit great evils in your state, and the king will honor you." This refers to retroactively punishing great crimes. Some seize the Son of Heaven's land and set themselves up as feudal lords; they are simply cut off, nothing more.

父煞其子當誅何？以為天地之性，人為貴，人皆天所生也，托父母氣而生耳。王者以養長而教之，故父不得專也。《春秋傳》曰：“晉侯煞世子申生不出蔡。”

A father who kills his son ought to be punished; why? Because it is held that among the nature of Heaven and Earth, man is the most precious; all men are born of Heaven and merely rely on the energy of their parents to be born. The king nurtures and educates them, so a father cannot decide on his own. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The Marquis of Jin killed his heir Shensheng; it does not record that he fled to Cai."

佞人當誅何？為其亂善行，傾覆國政。《韓詩內傳》曰：“孔子為魯司寇，先誅少正卯。”謂佞道已行，敵國政也。佞道未行，章明遠之而已。《論語》曰：“放鄭聲，遠佞人。”

A glib flatterer ought to be punished; why? Because he disturbs good conduct and overturns the government of the state. The Han Shi Nei Zhuan says: "When Confucius was Minister of Crime of Lu, he first executed Shaozheng Mao." This means that the way of flattery had already been carried out and was harming the government of the state. If the way of flattery has not yet been carried out, one merely makes it known and keeps him at a distance. The Analects says: "Banish the tunes of Zheng and keep glib flatterers at a distance."

子得為父報仇者，臣子於君父，其義一也。忠臣孝子所以不能已，以恩義不可奪也。故曰：父之仇不與共天下，兄弟之仇不與共國，朋友之仇不與同朝，族人之仇不共鄰。故《春秋傳》曰：“子不復仇，非子。”檀弓記。子夏問曰：“居兄弟之仇如之何？仕不與同國，銜君命，遇之不鬥。”父母以義見殺，子不復仇者，為往來不止也。《春秋》曰：“父不受誅，子復仇，可也。”

A son may avenge his father because, toward the lord and the father, the righteousness of a minister and of a son is the same. Loyal ministers and filial sons cannot stop because favor and righteousness cannot be taken from them. Therefore it is said: one does not share the world with the enemy of one's father, does not share the state with the enemy of one's brother, does not share the court with the enemy of one's friend, and does not share the neighborhood with the enemy of one's kin. Hence the Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "A son who does not avenge is not a son." The Tan Gong records that Zixia asked: "How should one deal with the enemy of a brother?" Answer: in office, one does not share a state with him, and if they meet while carrying the ruler's commission, one does not fight. If a parent is killed in accordance with righteousness, the son does not avenge, because the coming and going has no end. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "If a father was not executed unjustly, the son's revenge is permitted."

誅猶責也。誅其人，責其罪，極其過惡。《春秋》曰：“楚子虔誘蔡侯班，煞之於申。”《傳》曰：“誅君之子不立。”

To execute (zhu) is like to reproach (ze). One executes that person and reproaches him for his crimes, exhausting his faults and evils. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "Qian, Viscount of Chu, lured Ban, Marquis of Cai, and killed him at Shen." The Commentary says: "The son of an executed ruler is not established."

討者何謂？討猶除也，欲言臣當掃除君之賊。《春秋》曰：“衛人殺州籲於濮。”《傳》曰：“其稱人何？討賊之辭也。”

What does "to suppress" (tao) mean? Tao is like "to eliminate" (chu); it means that a minister should sweep away the traitor against the ruler. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "The men of Wei killed Zhouxu at Pu." The Commentary says: "Why is he called 'men'? It is the wording for suppressing a traitor."

伐者何謂伐擊也，欲言伐擊之也。《尚書》曰：“武王伐紂。”

What does "to attack" (fa) mean? Fa means "to strike" (ji); it means to strike and attack him. The Book of Documents says: "King Wu attacked Zhou."

徵者何謂也？徵猶正也，欲言其正也，輕重從辭也。誕以爾東征。誅祿甫也。又曰：“甲戌，我惟徵徐戎。”

What does "to campaign" (zheng) mean? Zheng is like "to correct" (zheng); it means to make him correct, with the weight varying according to the wording. "Therefore I will lead you on the eastern campaign" refers to punishing Lu Fu. It also says: "On the day jiaxu, I will campaign against the Xu barbarians."

戰者何謂也？《尚書大傳》曰：“戰者，憚警之也。”《春秋讖》曰：“戰者，延改也。”

What does "to battle" (zhan) mean? The Shang Shu Da Zhuan says: "Battle is to make them fearful and alert." The Chun Qiu Chen says: "Battle is to prolong and reform."

弒者試也，欲言臣子殺其君父不敢卒，候間司事，可稍稍弒之。《易》曰：“臣弒其君，子弒其父，非一朝一夕之故也。”

Regicide (shi) means "to try" (shi); it means that when ministers and sons kill their ruler or father, they do not dare act abruptly, but wait for an opening and watch events, and so can gradually kill him. The Book of Changes says: "A minister killing his ruler, a son killing his father, is not the result of a single morning or evening."

篡者何謂也？篡猶奪也，取也，欲言庶奪嫡，孽奪宗，引奪取其位。《春秋傳》曰：“其言入何？篡詞也。”

What does "to usurp" (cuan) mean? Cuan is like "to seize" (duo); it is to take, and it means that a son of a concubine seizes the place of the primary heir, or a lesser branch seizes the main line, by drawing in and taking his position. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Why does it say 'entered'? It is the wording for usurping."

襲者何謂也？行不假途，掩人不備也。《春秋傳》曰：“其謂之秦何？夷狄之也。曷為夷狄之？秦伯將襲鄭。”入國掩人不備，行不假途，人銜枚，馬韁勒，晝伏夜行，為襲也。諸侯家國，入人家，宜告主人，所以尊敬、防併兼也。《春秋傳》曰：“桓公假途於陳而伐楚。”《禮》曰：“使次介先假途，用束帛。”即如是，諸侯賣王者道，禮無往不反，非謂所賣者也。將入人國，先使大夫執幣假道，主人亦遣大夫迎於郊，為賓主，設禮而待之，是其相尊敬也。防併兼奈何？諸侯之行，必有師旅，恐掩人不備，士卒斂取恆遲，先假途則預備之矣。

What does "to raid" (xi) mean? It is to travel without borrowing passage and to take people unprepared. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Why is he called Qin? Because he is regarded as a barbarian. Why regarded as a barbarian? Because the Earl of Qin was about to raid Zheng." Entering another's state and taking people unprepared, traveling without borrowing passage, with men holding gags in their mouths, horses with reins held tight, hiding by day and moving by night, is a raid. Feudal lords have their own houses and states, and when entering another's, they should notify the host, out of respect and to prevent annexation. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Duke Huan borrowed passage from Chen to attack Chu." The Book of Rites says: "Have the second envoy first borrow passage, using a bundle of silk." If so, then the feudal lords would be selling the king's roads, but in ritual there is no going without returning, and this does not mean what is being sold. When about to enter another's state, one first sends a grand master carrying tokens to borrow passage, and the host also sends a grand master to meet him at the outskirts, they act as guest and host and receive each other with ritual; this is mutual respect. What of preventing annexation? When feudal lords travel they must have troops, and there is fear of taking people unprepared; soldiers are restrained and their movements are often slow, so borrowing passage first provides advance defense.

冬至，所以休兵不舉事。閉開旅不行何，此日陽氣微弱。王者承天理物，故率天下靜，不復行役，扶助微氣成萬物也。故孝經糹曰：“夏至陰氣始動。冬至陽氣始萌。”易曰：先王以至日閉開。旅不行。夏至陰始起。反大熱何。陰氣始起，陽氣推而上。故大熱也。冬至陽始起陰氣推而上。故大寒也。

Why, at the winter solstice, are troops rested, no affairs undertaken, and [a word missing from the source, lost in transcription] closed, and travelers do not walk? Because on this day the yang energy is faint. The king receives Heaven's mandate to govern the myriad things, so he leads the world in stillness, with no further labor or campaigns, helping the faint energy to complete the myriad things. Therefore the Xiao Jing [a word missing from the source] says: "At the summer solstice yin energy begins to stir, and at the winter solstice yang energy begins to sprout." The Book of Changes says: the former kings closed [a word missing from the source] on the solstice day, and travelers did not walk. At the summer solstice yin begins to rise, yet it is very hot; why? When yin energy begins to rise, yang energy is pushed upward, so it is very hot. At the winter solstice yang begins to rise, and yin energy is pushed upward, so it is very cold.

臣所以有諫君之義何？盡忠納誠也。愛之能無勞乎？忠焉能無誨乎？《孝經》曰：“天子有諍臣七人，雖無道，不失其天下；諸侯有諍臣五人，雖無道，不失其國；大夫有諍臣三人，雖無道，不失其家；士有諍友，則身不離於令名；父有諍子，則身不陷於不義。”

Why is there a principle that ministers remonstrate with their ruler? In order to exhaust their loyalty and offer sincerity. If one loves him, can one not work hard for him? If one is loyal to him, can one not instruct him? The Xiao Jing says: "The Son of Heaven has seven remonstrating ministers; even if he is without the Way, he will not lose the world. A feudal lord has five remonstrating ministers; even if he is without the Way, he will not lose his state. A grand master has three remonstrating ministers; even if he is without the Way, he will not lose his house. A gentleman who has a remonstrating friend will not lose his good name; a father who has a remonstrating son will not fall into unrighteousness."

天子置左輔、右弼、前疑、後承，以順。左輔主修政，剌不法。右弼主糾，周言失傾。前疑主糾度，定德經。後承主匡正，常考變天。四弼興道，率主行仁。夫陽變於七，以三成，故建三公，序四諍，列七人，雖無道，不失天下，杖闢賢也。

The Son of Heaven establishes the Left Assistant, the Right Aide, the Front Doubter and the Rear Supporter, in order to bring about compliance. The Left Assistant is in charge of cultivating government and denouncing what is unlawful. The Right Aide is in charge of inspection and correcting, covering the errors and deviations of speech. The Front Doubter is in charge of weighing and measuring, settling the constancy of virtue. The Rear Supporter is in charge of rectifying, constantly examining the changes of Heaven. The four aides raise up the Way and lead the ruler to practice benevolence. Yang transforms at seven above and is completed with three, so the Three Dukes are established, the four remonstrators are arranged in order, and the seven persons are lined up; even if he is without the Way, he will not lose the world, relying on the appointment of worthy men.

諸侯諍，不從得去何？以屈尊申卑，孤惡君也。去曰：“某質性頑鈍。”言愚不任用，請退避賢。如是之是待以禮，臣待放；如不以禮待，遂去。君待之以禮奈何？曰：“予熟思夫子言，未得其道。今子不且留，聖王之制，無塞賢之路，夫子欲何之？”則遣大夫送至於郊。

When a feudal lord's minister remonstrates and is not heeded, he may leave; why? So as to bend the honored and extend the humble and leave the bad ruler isolated. On leaving he says: "I, so-and-so, am dull by nature." This means he is stupid and not fit for employment, and requests to retire to make room for a worthy man. If treated in this way with ritual, the minister waits to be dismissed; if not treated with ritual, he simply leaves. How does a ruler treat him with ritual? He says: "I have been pondering the Master's words and have not yet grasped their Way. Now if you do not stay for the time being, the system of the sage kings does not block the path of the worthy; where will the Master go?" Then he sends a grand master to see him off to the outskirts.

必三諫者何？以為得君臣之義，必得於郊者，忠厚之至也，冀君覺悟能用之。所以必三年，古者臣下有大喪，君子年不呼其門，所以復君恩。今己所言，不合於禮義，君欲罪之，可得也。《援神契》曰：“三諫待放，復三年，盡也。”所以言放者，臣為君諱，若言有罪放之也。

Why must he remonstrate three times? Because it is held that this is how the righteousness between ruler and minister is obtained. Why must he wait at the outskirts? It is the utmost of loyalty and generosity, hoping that the ruler will awaken and still employ him. So it must be three years: in ancient times, when a minister had a great mourning, the gentleman did not call at his door for a whole year, in order to repay the ruler's kindness. Now if what he says does not accord with ritual and righteousness, the ruler may add a penalty, and that too is allowed. The Yuan Shen Qi says: "After three remonstrances he waits to be dismissed, and after another three years he exhausts [two characters missing from the source, lost in transcription]." So it is said "banished"; it is the minister avoiding a taboo on behalf of the ruler, as if saying he had a crime and was banished.

所諫事已行者，遂去不留。凡待放者，冀君用其言耳，事已行，各去無為留之。《易》曰：“介如石，不終日，貞吉。”《論語》曰：“三日不朝，孔子行。”

When the matter remonstrated about has already been carried out, he leaves and does not stay. All those who wait to be dismissed merely hope that the ruler will use their words; once the matter has been carried out, each goes his own way, and there is no principle of staying. The Book of Changes says: "Firm as a stone, he does not wait till the end of the day; correctness brings good fortune." The Analects says: "When the court was not held for three days, Confucius left."

臣待於郊者，君絕其祿者，示不欲去也，道不合耳。祿參三與之，一留與其妻、長子，使終祭宗廟。賜之環則反，賜之則去，明君子重恥也。《王度記》曰：反之以，其不待放者，亦與之物。明有介主無介民也。”《詩》曰：“逝將去汝，適彼樂土。”

When a minister waits at the outskirts and the ruler cuts off his salary, it shows that the ruler does not want him to go and merely that the Way does not agree. His salary is divided into three parts for him, one part kept for his wife and eldest son so that he can finish the sacrifices at the ancestral temple. If given a ring, he returns; if given [an item missing from the source, lost in transcription], he leaves, showing that the gentleman values shame. The Wang Du Ji says: he is made to return with [the item missing from the source]. Those who do not wait for dismissal are also given something. This shows that there are upright rulers and no upright people. The Book of Odes says: "I will leave you and go to that happy land."

或曰：天子之臣，不得言放。天子以天下為家也。親屬諫不待放者，骨肉無相去離之義也。《春秋傳》曰：“司馬皮曰：‘請處乎此，臣請歸。”子皮者，楚公子也，時不待放。

Some say: a minister of the Son of Heaven cannot be said to be "banished." The Son of Heaven takes the whole world as his home. Relatives who remonstrate do not wait for dismissal, because flesh and blood have no principle of leaving one another. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Sima Pi said: 'Please stay here, and I request to go back.'" Zipi was a prince of Chu, and at that time he did not wait to be dismissed.

士不得諫者，士賤，不得豫政事，故不得諫也。謀及之，得固盡其忠耳。《禮?保傅》曰：“大夫進諫，士傳民語。”

An officer cannot remonstrate, because an officer is lowly and cannot take part in government, so he cannot remonstrate. If he is asked for advice, he should simply exhaust his loyalty. The Bao Fu chapter of the Book of Rites says: "Grand masters remonstrate, and officers relay the words of the people."

妻得諫夫者，夫婦榮恥共之。《詩》云：“相鼠有體，人而無禮。人而無禮。胡不遄死？”此妻諫夫之詩也，諫不從不得去之者，本娶妻，非為諫正也，故一與齊，終身不改。此地無去夫之義也。

A wife may remonstrate with her husband, because husband and wife share honor and shame alike. The Book of Odes says: "Look at the rat, it has a body; a man without ritual, why does he not quickly die?" This is a poem of a wife remonstrating with her husband. If she remonstrates and is not heeded she may not leave, because the wife was originally taken not for the sake of remonstrating and correcting, so once she is joined in one body with him she does not change for life. This is the principle that Earth does not leave the husband.

子諫父，不去者，父子一體而分，無相離之法，猶火去木而滅也。《論語》：“事父母，幾諫。”下言：“又敬不違。”臣之諫君何取法？法金正木也。子之諫父，法火以揉木也。臣諫君以義，故折正之也。子諫父以恩，故但揉之也，木無毀傷也。待放去，取法於水火，無金則相離也。

A son remonstrating with his father does not leave, because father and son are one body divided, and there is no rule of leaving one another, as fire goes out when it leaves wood. The Analects says: "In serving parents, remonstrate gently." Below it says: "Still be reverent and do not disobey." What does a minister remonstrating with the ruler model? He models metal straightening wood. A son remonstrating with his father models fire softening wood. A minister remonstrates with his ruler by righteousness, so he bends and straightens him. A son remonstrates with his father by affection, so he only softens him, and the wood is not damaged. Waiting for dismissal and leaving models water and fire: without metal, they leave one another.

諫者何？諫間也，因也，更也，是非相間革更其行也。人懷五常，故有五諫：謂諷諫。順諫，窺諫，指諫，伯諫。諷諫者，智也，患禍之萌，深睹其事，未彰而諷告，此智性也。順諫者，仁也，出詞遜順，不逆君心，仁之性也。窺諫者，禮也，視君顏色，不悅且卻，悅則復前，以禮進退，此禮之性也。指諫者，信也，指質相其事也，此信之性也。伯諫者，義也，惻隱發於中，直言國之害，勵志忘生，為君不避喪身，義之性也。孔子曰：“諫有五，吾從諷之諫。事君，進思盡忠，退思補過，去而不訕，諫而不露。”故《曲禮》曰：“為人臣不顯者。”纖微未見於外，如詩所刺也。若過惡已著，民蒙毒螫，天見災變，事白異露，作詩以刺之，幸其覺悟也。

What is remonstrance (jian)? Jian means "to put a gap between" (jian), "to rely on" (yin), and "to change" (geng); it is to separate right from wrong and to alter his conduct. Man bears the five constants, so there are five kinds of remonstrance: indirect, compliant, observant, pointed and forthright. Indirect remonstrance is wisdom: when calamity is just beginning to sprout, one sees deeply into the matter and hints at it before it becomes evident; this is the nature of wisdom. Compliant remonstrance is benevolence: the words are gentle and humble and do not go against the ruler's heart; this is the nature of benevolence. Observant remonstrance is ritual: one watches the ruler's expression, withdraws for the moment if he is displeased, and steps forward again when he is pleased, advancing and retiring according to ritual; this is the nature of ritual. Pointed remonstrance is trustworthiness: one points to the solid facts to make the matter clear; this is the nature of trustworthiness. Forthright remonstrance is righteousness: compassion rises from within, one speaks plainly of the harm to the state, sets one's will on it and forgets one's life, and does not avoid losing his body for the ruler; this is the nature of righteousness. Confucius said: "There are five kinds of remonstrance, and I follow indirect remonstrance. In serving a ruler, when advancing one thinks of exhausting one's loyalty, and when withdrawing one thinks of making up for faults; one leaves without slandering and remonstrates without making it public." Therefore the Qu Li says: "A minister does not make remonstrance public." Before the slight fault shows on the outside, it is like what poems satirize. If the faults are already conspicuous, the people suffer harm, Heaven shows calamities and changes, and the matter is plain and the portents manifest, then one composes a poem to satirize, hoping he will awaken.

明王所以立諫諍者，皆為重民而求已失也。《禮?保傅》曰：“於是立進善之旌，懸誹謗之木，建招諫之鼓。”王法立史記事者，以為臣下之儀樣，人之所取法則也。動則當應禮，是以必有記過之史，撤膳之宰。《禮?玉藻》曰：“動則左史書之，言則右史書之。”《禮?保傅》曰：“王失度，則史書之，工誦之，三公進讀之，宰夫撤其膳。是以天子不得為非。故史之義，不書則死，宰不撤膳亦死。

The reason wise kings establish remonstrance is that they value the people and seek out their own faults. The Rites, in "Bao Fu", says: "Thus they set up the banner for presenting good counsel, hung the board for criticism, and built the drum for inviting remonstrance." Royal law establishes the historian to record events as a model for ministers, and as something people take as their pattern. Every movement should accord with ritual; therefore there must be a historian who records faults and a steward who removes the meal. The Rites, in "Yu Zao", says: "When the king moves, the Left Historian writes it down; when he speaks, the Right Historian writes it down." The "Bao Fu" says: "When the king loses his measure, the historian writes it down, the musicians recite it, the Three Dukes come forward and read it, and the steward removes his meal. Thus the Son of Heaven cannot do wrong. So the duty of the historian is that if he does not write it, he dies; and if the steward does not remove the meal, he too dies."

所以謂之史何？明王者使為之也。謂之宰何？宰，制也，使製法度也。宰所以撤膳何？陰陽不調，五穀不熟，故王者為不盡味而食之。《禮》曰：“一谷不升，不備雞；二谷不升，不備三牲。人臣之義，當掩惡揚美，所以記君過何，各有所緣也。掩惡者，謂廣德宣禮之臣。

Why is he called a historian (shi)? It shows that the king appoints him to do it. Why is he called a steward (zai)? "Zai" means to regulate (zhi), that is, he is made to set the standards. Why does the steward remove the meal? When yin and yang are out of harmony and the five grains do not ripen, the king eats without fully savoring his food. The Rites says: "If one grain fails to ripen, the chicken [a rare character lost in the source text during transcription] is not prepared; if two grains fail, the three sacrificial animals are not prepared." The duty of a minister is to cover up evil and make good known, so why does he record the ruler's faults? Each has its own ground. Covering up evil refers to ministers who spread virtue and proclaim ritual.

所以為君隱惡何？君至尊，故設輔弼、置諫官，本不當有遺失。故《論語》曰：“陳司敗問昭公知禮乎？孔子曰：‘知禮’。”此為君隱也。

Why does one conceal the ruler's evil? The ruler is the most honored, so assistants and aides are appointed and remonstrating officials installed, and there should in principle be no failing. Hence the Analects says: "The Minister of Justice of Chen asked whether Duke Zhao knew ritual. Confucius said: 'He knew ritual.'" This is concealing for the ruler.

君所以不為臣隱何？以為君之與臣無適無莫，義之與比，賞一善而眾臣勸，罰一惡而眾臣懼。若為卑隱，為不可殆也。故《尚書》曰：“必力賞罰，以定厥功。”

Why does the ruler not conceal for his ministers? It is thought that the ruler has no closeness or favoritism toward ministers, and that righteousness is to be set against them: when one good deed is rewarded, the ministers are encouraged; when one evil is punished, the ministers fear. If he concealed for those below him, it would be dangerous and unacceptable. Hence the Book of Documents says: "He must apply himself to reward and punishment, in order to settle their merit."

諸侯臣對天子，亦為隱乎？然。本諸侯之臣，今來者，為聘問天子無恙，非為告君之惡來也。故《孝經》曰：“將順其美，匡救其惡，故上下治，能相親也。”

Does a minister of a feudal lord also conceal before the Son of Heaven? Yes. He is by origin a minister of the feudal lord, and now comes forward to inquire after the well-being of the Son of Heaven, not to report his own ruler's evil. Hence the Classic of Filial Piety says: "They carry out his good, and correct his evil, so that high and low are well governed and can be close to one another."

君不為臣隱，父獨為子隱何？以為父子一體，而分榮恥相及，故《論語》曰：“父為子隱，子為父隱，直在其中矣。”

The ruler does not conceal for his ministers, but the father alone conceals for his son; why? It is thought that father and son are of one body, so that after separation their honor and shame are tied together. Hence the Analects says: "A father conceals for his son, and a son conceals for his father, and uprightness lies in this."

兄弟相為隱乎？曰：然，與父子同義，故周公誅四國，常以祿甫為主也。

Do brothers conceal for each other? It is said: Yes, by the same principle as father and son. Hence when the Duke of Zhou executed the four states, he always took Lu Fu as the chief offender.

朋友相為隱者，人本接朋結友，為欲立身揚名也。朋友之道有四焉，通財不在其中，近則正之，遠則稱之，樂則思之，患則死之。

Friends conceal for each other because people make friends in order to establish themselves and make a name. The Way of friendship has four rules, and sharing wealth is not among them: when near, correct him; when far, praise him; when happy, think of him; when in hardship, die for him.

夫妻相為隱乎？《傳》曰：“曾去妻，藜蒸不熟。問曰：‘婦有七出，不蒸亦預乎？’曰：‘吾聞之也，絕交令可友，棄妻令可嫁也。黎蒸不熟而已。何問其故？”此為隱之也。

Do husband and wife conceal for each other? The Commentary says: "Zengzi divorced his wife because she did not steam the goosefoot well. He was asked: 'A wife may be sent away on seven grounds; is failing to steam among them?' He said: 'I have heard that when breaking off a friendship, one should leave it so that they can still be friends; when casting off a wife, one should leave it so that she can marry again. It was only that the goosefoot was not well steamed; why ask the reason?'" This is concealing for her.

天所以以親射何？助陽氣達萬物也。春氣微弱，恐物有窒塞，不能自達者。夫射，自內發外，貫堅入剛，象物之生，故以射達之也。

Why does Heaven use the archery in person? To help yang qi penetrate the myriad things. Spring qi is weak, and there is fear that things may be blocked and unable to get through by themselves. Archery shoots from within to the outside, piercing the hard and entering the firm, and resembles the growth of things, so archery is used to help them break through.

《含文嘉》曰：“天子射熊。諸侯射麋，大夫射虎、豹，士射鹿、豕。”

The Han Wen Jia says: "The Son of Heaven shoots at a bear, a feudal lord at a deer-like elk, a Grandee at a tiger or leopard, and an Officer at a deer or boar."

天子所以射熊何？示服猛，巧佞也。熊為獸猛巧者，非但當服猛也。示當服天下巧佞之臣也。諸侯射麋者，示達遠迷惑人也。麋之言迷也。大夫射虎豹何？示服猛也。士射鹿、豕者？示除害也。各取德所能服也。

Why does the Son of Heaven shoot a bear? It shows subduing the fierce and the cunning. The bear is fierce and cunning among beasts; one should not only subdue the fierce, but it also shows that one should subdue the cunning and flattering ministers of the realm. A feudal lord shoots an elk, which shows reaching far and awakening the deluded. "Elk" (mi) means to be lost (mi). Why does a Grandee shoot a tiger or leopard? It shows subduing the fierce. Why does an Officer shoot a deer or boar? It shows removing harm. Each takes the virtue that he is able to subdue.

大夫、士兩射者人臣，示為君親視事，身勞苦也。或曰：臣陰，故數偶也。侯者，以布為之何，用人事之始也。本正則末正矣。所以名為侯何？明諸侯有不朝者，則射之，故《禮?射祝》曰：“嗟爾不寧侯，爾不朝於王所，以故天下失業。亢而射爾。”所以不射正身何？君子重同類，不忍射之，故畫獸而射之。

Grandees and Officers shoot both kinds because, as ministers, it shows that they personally do the work for the ruler and toil with their own bodies. Some say: ministers are yin, so they use even numbers. Why is the target made of cloth? It marks the beginning of human affairs. When the root is straight, the tip is straight. Why is it named a "hou" (target and also "feudal lord")? It shows that if a feudal lord does not come to court, he is shot at. Hence the Rites, in "She Zhu", says: "Ah, you restless feudal lords, you do not come to the king's court, and so the realm loses its livelihood. I raise my head and shoot you." Why is the body of a true man not shot? A gentleman values his own kind and cannot bear to shoot him, so beasts are painted to be shot.

射正何為乎？曰：射義非一也。夫射者，執弓堅固，心平體正，然後中也。二人爭勝，樂以德養也。勝負俱降，以宗禮讓，可以選士。故射選士，大夫勝者。發近而制遠也，其兵短而害長也，故可以戒難也。所以必因射助陽選士者，所以扶助微弱而抑其強，和調陰陽，戒不虞也。何以知為戒難也？《詩》曰：“四矢反兮，以御亂兮。”因射習禮樂，射於堂上何？示從上制下也。《禮》曰：“賓主執弓請升，射於兩楹之間。”天子射百二十步，諸侯九十步，大夫七十步，士五十步。明尊者所服遠也，卑者所服近也。

What is the purpose of the archery contest? It is said that the meaning of archery is not only one. In archery, one holds the bow firmly, the heart is level and the body upright, and only then does one hit the mark. Two people compete, delighting in nourishing through virtue. Winner and loser both step down, which honors ritual and deference, and it allows the selection of Officers. Hence archery is used to select Officers, and the Grandees choose those who win. It shoots from near and controls what is far, the weapon being short and its reach long, so it can guard against disaster. Therefore one must borrow archery to help yang and select Officers, as a way to support the weak and restrain the strong, harmonize yin and yang, and guard against the unforeseen. How do we know it guards against disaster? The Book of Odes says: "The four arrows return, to ward off disorder." Archery is borrowed to practice ritual and music. Why is the archery held in the hall? It shows controlling the lower from above. The Rites says: "Guest and host take their bows and ask to ascend the hall, and shoot between the two pillars." The Son of Heaven shoots at one hundred and twenty paces, a feudal lord at ninety, a Grandee at seventy, an Officer at fifty. This shows that the honored subdue what is far and the lowly subdue what is near.

所以十月行鄉飲酒之禮何？所以復尊卑長幼之義。春夏事急，俊井次牆，至有子使父，弟使兄，故以事閒暇，復長幼之序也。

Why is the rite of the village drinking held in the tenth month? In order to restore the principle of precedence between honored and humble, old and young. Spring and summer are urgent in work: able men dig wells and in turn build walls, so that sons may even order their fathers about and younger brothers their elder brothers. So taking advantage of the lull in work, the order of old and young is restored.

王者父事三老，兄事五更者何？欲陳孝悌之德，以示天下也。故雖天子，必有尊也，言有父也；必有先也，言有兄也。天子臨辟雍，親袒割牲。尊三老，父象也。謁忠奉几杖，授安車濡輪，恭綏執授。兄事五更，寵接禮交加客謙敬順貌也。《禮記?祭義》云：“祀於明堂，所以教諸侯之孝也。享三老、五更於太學者，所以諸侯悌也。”不正言父、兄，言五更者何，老者壽考也，欲言所令者多也。更者更也，所更歷者，眾也。即如是，不但言老言三何？欲言其明於天地人之道而老也，五更者，欲言其明於五行之道而更事也。三老、五更幾人乎？曰：各一人。何以知之？既以父事，父一而己，不宜有三。

Why does a king serve the Three Elders as fathers and the Five Experienced as elder brothers? He wishes to display the virtues of filial piety and brotherly respect to show the world. Therefore even the Son of Heaven must have someone he honors, which is to say a father; and someone he puts first, which is to say an elder brother. The Son of Heaven goes to the Biyong, and himself bares his shoulder and carves the meat. Honoring the Three Elders is the image of the father. He announces loyalty and good faith, presents them with armrest and staff, gives them a comfortable carriage, moistens the wheels, and respectfully hands them the strap. He serves the Five Experienced as elder brothers, with favor and courtesy joined, being humble and deferential as with guests. The Records of Ritual, in "Ji Yi", says: "Sacrificing in the Hall of Light is to teach the feudal lords filial piety. Feasting the Three Elders and Five Experienced in the Imperial Academy is to teach the feudal lords brotherly respect." Why does it not say father and elder brother directly, but says Five Experienced? "Elder" (lao) means long-lived, saying that those he commands are many. "Experienced" (geng) means to have passed through, having gone through many things. If so, why does it not say only "elder" but says "three"? It means he is aged because he is versed in the Way of Heaven, Earth, and man. The "Five Experienced" means he is experienced because he is versed in the Way of the Five Phases. How many persons are the Three Elders and Five Experienced? It is said: one each. How do we know? Since they are served as a father, and a father is only one, there should not be three.

臣七十懸車致仕者，臣以執事趨走為職，七十陽道極，耳目不聰明，之屬，是以退去，避賢者，所以長庶恥也。懸車，示不用也。致仕者，致其事於君。君不使自去者，尊賢者也。故《曲禮》曰：“大夫七十而致仕。”《王制》曰：“七十致政。”

A minister at seventy hangs up his carriage and retires from office, because a minister's duty is to hurry about carrying out affairs, and at seventy the way of yang has reached its limit, the ears and eyes are no longer keen, and [two rare characters lost in the source text during transcription] and the like occur, so he withdraws, avoids the worthy, and thereby builds up the sense of shame among the common people. Hanging up the carriage shows that it is no longer used. Retiring from office means handing the affairs back to the ruler. The ruler does not allow him to leave by himself, which honors the worthy. Hence the Rites, in "Qu Li", says: "A Grandee retires at seventy." The Royal Regulations says: "At seventy he returns his governing duties."

卿大夫老，有盛德者留，賜之几杖，不備之以筋力之禮。在家者，三分其祿，以一與之，所以厚賢也。人年七十，臥非人不溫，適四方，乘安車，與婦人俱，自稱曰老夫。《曲禮》曰：“大夫致仕，若不得謝，則必賜之几杖。”《王記》曰：“臣致仕於君者，養之以其祿之半。”几杖所以扶助衰也，故《王制》曰：“五十杖於家，六十杖於鄉，七十杖於國，八十杖於朝。”臣老歸，年九十，君欲有問，則就其室，以珍從，明尊賢也。故《禮?祭義》云：“八十不仕朝，於君問就之。”大夫老歸死，以大夫禮葬，車馬衣服如之何？曰：盡如故也。

When a Minister or Grandee grows old, those of great virtue are retained and given an armrest and staff, and are not required to complete the rites that demand physical strength. Those at home have their stipend divided into three parts and receive one of them, to treat the worthy generously. When a man reaches seventy, he is not warm in bed without someone beside him; he travels to the four quarters, riding a comfortable carriage and going with women, and calls himself "old fellow". The Qu Li says: "When a Grandee retires, if he cannot decline, an armrest and staff must be given." The Wang Ji says: "A minister who retires from his ruler is supported with half of his stipend." The armrest and staff are used to support the weak, so the Royal Regulations says: "At fifty one uses a staff at home, at sixty in the village, at seventy in the state, at eighty at court." A minister who has gone home in old age and reaches ninety: if the ruler has a question to ask, he goes to his house, bringing rare gifts to follow him, which shows honor of the worthy. Hence the Rites, in "Ji Yi", says: "At eighty one no longer serves at court; if the ruler has a question, he goes to him." If a Grandee returns home in old age and dies, he is buried with the rites of a Grandee; what of his carriage, horses, and clothing? It is said: entirely as before.

古者所以年十五入太學何？以為八歲毀齒，始有識知，入學學書計。七八十五，陰陽備，故十五成童志明，入太學，學經術。學之為言覺也，悟所不知也。故學以治性，慮以變情。故玉不琢，不成器；人不學，不知道。子夏曰：“百工居肆以致其事，君子學以致其道。”故《禮》曰：“十年曰幼，學。”《論語》曰：“吾十有五而志於學，三十而立。”又曰：“生而知之者，上也；學而知之者，次也。”是以雖有自然之性，必立師傅焉。《論語讖》曰：“五帝立師，三王制之。傳曰：黃帝師力牧。帝顓頊師綠圖，帝嚳師赤松子，帝堯師務成子，帝舜師尹壽，禹師國先生，湯師伊尹，文王師呂望，武王師尚父，周公師虢叔，孔子師老聃。”天子太子，諸侯世子，皆就師於外，尊師重先生之道也。《禮》曰：“有來學者，無往教者也。”《易》曰：“匪我求童蒙，童蒙求我。”《王制》曰：“小學在公宮南之左，太學在郊。”又曰：“天子、太子、群后之太子、公卿大夫之元士嫡子皆造焉。”

Why did people in ancient times enter the Imperial Academy at fifteen? It was thought that at eight the milk teeth are replaced and one begins to have understanding, and enters school to learn writing and arithmetic. Seven plus eight is fifteen; yin and yang are complete, so at fifteen one is a youth, his aims are clear, and he enters the Imperial Academy to study the classics. "Learning" (xue) means to awaken (jue), to awaken to what one does not know. Therefore learning is used to govern one's nature, and thought to change one's feelings. So jade that is not carved does not become a vessel, and a person who does not study does not know. Zixia said: "The hundred craftsmen dwell in their workshops to accomplish their tasks, and the gentleman learns to accomplish his Way." Hence the Rites says: "At ten he is called a child and studies." The Analects says: "At fifteen I set my mind on learning; at thirty I took my stand." It also says: "Those born with knowledge are the highest; those who learn and then know are next." Therefore even those with a natural gift must set up a teacher and tutor. The Lun Yu Chen says: "The Five Emperors set up teachers, and the Three Kings established them." The records say: the Yellow Emperor took Li Mu as teacher, Emperor Zhuan Xu took Lu Tu, Emperor Ku took Chi Songzi, Emperor Yao took Wu Chengzi, Emperor Shun took Yin Shou, Yu took Guo Xiansheng, Tang took Yi Yin, King Wen took Lu Wang, King Wu took Shang Fu, the Duke of Zhou took Guo Shu, and Confucius took Lao Dan. The Crown Prince of the Son of Heaven and the heirs of feudal lords all go outside to seek a teacher, which honors teachers and values the Way of the elder. The Rites says: "There are those who come to learn; there are none who go to teach." The Changes says: "It is not I who seek the young and ignorant; it is the young and ignorant who seek me." The Royal Regulations says: "The lesser school is to the left of the south side of the ducal palace, and the great school is in the suburbs." It also says: "The Son of Heaven's Crown Prince, the Crown Princes of the lords, and the eldest sons of the first-rank Officers of Dukes, Ministers, and Grandees all go there."

父所以不自教子何？為世瀆也。又授之道當極說陰陽、夫婦變化之事，不可父子相教也。

Why does a father not teach his own son? Because of the familiarity bred over generations. Moreover, the Way that is transmitted should thoroughly explain yin and yang and the changes in affairs between husband and wife, and father and son cannot teach each other these.

師弟子之道有三：《論語》：“朋友自遠方來。”朋友之道也。又曰：“回也，視予猶父也。”父子之道也。以君臣之義教之。君臣之道也。

The way between teacher and student is of three kinds. The Analects: "A friend has come from afar." This is the way of friends. It also says: "Hui regarded me as a father." This is the way of father and son. Teaching him according to the principle of ruler and minister is the way of ruler and minister.

天子立辟雍何？所以行禮樂、宣德化也。闢者壁也，象璧圓又以法天；於雍水，側象教化流行也。闢之為言積也，積天下之道德也；雍之為言壅也，壅天下之殘賊。故謂之辟雍也。《王制》曰：“天子曰辟雍，諸侯曰泮宮。”外圓者，欲使觀之均平也。又欲言外圓內方。明德當圓、行當方也。不言圓闢何？又圓於闢何？以知其圓也，以其言闢也。何以知有外也？又《詩》云：“思樂泮水，薄採其荇。”《詩訓》曰：“水圓如璧。”諸侯曰泮宮者，半於天子宮也，明尊卑有差，所化少也。半者象璜也，獨南面禮儀之方有水耳，其餘壅之，言垣，宮名之別尊卑也。明不得化四方也。不曰泮雍何？嫌但半天子制度也。《詩》云：“穆穆魯侯，克明其德。既作泮宮，淮夷攸服。”

Why does the Son of Heaven establish the Biyong? To practice ritual and music and to spread virtuous teaching. "Bi" is a jade disc; it resembles a round disc and also takes after Heaven; it is by the Yong water, resembling the flowing of teaching. "Bi" means to accumulate (ji), gathering the virtue of the whole world; "yong" means to block (yong), blocking the cruelty and harm of the world. Hence it is called Biyong. The Royal Regulations says: "The Son of Heaven's is called Biyong, the feudal lords' is called Pangong." It is round on the outside so that those who look on may be treated equally. Moreover it is said to be round outside and square inside, showing that virtue should be round and conduct should be square. Why is it not called the "round bi"? And why is it rounder than a bi? From the name "bi" we know it is round. How do we know there is a waterway outside? Moreover the Book of Odes says: "Happily we gather by the Pan water, and pick the water mallow a little." The Commentary on the Odes says: "The water is round like a disc." The feudal lords' is called Pangong, half of the Son of Heaven's palace, showing differences of rank, and that they teach fewer people. The half resembles a half-disc, with water only on the south side, the ritual front, while the rest is blocked off, spoken of as a wall; the name of the palace distinguishes honor from lowliness. It shows that they cannot transform all four quarters. Why is it not called Panyong? Out of concern that it would suggest only half the Son of Heaven's system. The Book of Odes says: "Solemn and majestic was the Marquis of Lu, who brightened his virtue. Having built the Pangong, the Huai barbarians were brought to submission."

鄉曰庠，裡曰序。庠者，庠禮義；序者，序長幼也。《禮?五帝記》曰：“帝庠序之學，則父子有親，長幼有序，善如爾舍。”明令必次外然後前民者也，未見於仁，故立庠序以導之也。教民者，皆裡中之老而有道德者，為右師，教裡中之子弟以道藝、孝悌、行義。立五帝之德，朝則坐於裡之門，弟子皆出就農而後罷。示如之，皆入而復罷。其有出入不時，早晏不節，有過，故使語之，言心無由生也。若既收藏，皆入教學，立春而就事，其有賢才美質知學者，足以聞其心，頑鈍之民亦足以別於禽獸，而知人倫，故無不教之民。孔子曰：“以不教民戰，是謂棄之。”明無不教民也。

In the district it is called Xiang, and in the neighborhood Xu. "Xiang" is the ritual and righteousness of the Xiang and Xu schools; "xu" means to put in order the old and young. The Rites, in "The Record of the Five Emperors", says: "When the schools of Xiang and Xu are established, father and son have affection, old and young have order, and goodness is like your own house." This shows that one must first arrange the order outside, and then lead the people. Since benevolence has not yet been seen, the Xiang and Xu schools are set up to guide them. Those who teach the people are all elders of the neighborhood who have virtue, serving as Right Teachers, who teach the neighborhood's youth the arts of the Way, filial piety, brotherly respect, and righteous conduct. They set up the virtue of the Five Emperors, sit at the neighborhood gate in the morning, and only after all the youths have gone out to farm do they stop. This shows that when all return, they stop again. Those who come and go out of time, are early or late and keep no discipline, or have faults, are told of it, which means that evil thoughts have no chance to arise. When the harvest is stored away, all come in to be taught, and at the beginning of spring they go to their work. Among them, those with talent and fine natures who know how to learn are sufficient to open their minds; even the dull people are enough to be distinguished from beasts and to know human relations. Therefore there are no people who are not taught. Confucius said: "To send untaught people to war is called throwing them away." This shows that there are no people who are not taught.

天子所以有靈臺者何？所以考天人之心，察陰陽之會，揆星辰之證驗，為萬物獲福無方之元。《詩》云：“經始靈臺。”天子立明堂者，所以通神靈，感天地，正四時，出教化，宗有德，重有道，顯有能，褒有行者也。明堂，上圓下方，八窗四闥，佈政之宮，在國之陽。上圓法天，下方法地，八窗象八風，四闥法四時，九室法九州，十二坐法十二月，三十六戶法三十六兩，七十二牖法七十二風。

Why does the Son of Heaven have the Spirit Terrace? In order to examine the minds of Heaven and man, observe the meeting of yin and yang, and measure the proofs of the stars, to seek blessings for the myriad things and to serve as the origin of the unbounded. The Book of Odes says: "He began to plan the Spirit Terrace." The Son of Heaven establishes the Hall of Light to communicate with the spirits, move Heaven and Earth, rectify the four seasons, issue teachings, honor the virtuous, value those with the Way, exalt the able, and reward those of good conduct. The Hall of Light is round above and square below, with eight windows and four gates, and is the palace for promulgating government, in the south of the capital. The round top takes after Heaven, the square bottom takes after Earth, the eight windows resemble the eight winds, the four gates take after the four seasons, the nine chambers take after the Nine Provinces, the twelve seats take after the twelve months, the thirty-six doors take after the thirty-six rains, and the seventy-two windows take after the seventy-two winds.

天所以有災變何？所以譴告人君，覺悟其行，欲令悔過修德，深思慮也。《授神契》曰：“行有玷缺，氣逆於天，情感變出，以戒人也。”

Why does Heaven have calamities and anomalies? To rebuke and warn the ruler, so that he becomes aware of his own conduct, repents his faults, cultivates virtue, and reflects deeply. The Shou Shen Qi says: "When conduct has a flaw, qi rebels in Heaven, and shifts of feeling arise to warn people."

災異者，何謂也？《春秋潛潭巴》曰：“災之言傷也，隨事而誅；異之言怪也，先發感動之也。”何以言災有哭也？《春秋》曰：“新宮火，三日哭。”《傳》曰：“必三日哭何？禮也。”災三日哭，所以然者，宗廟先禮所處，鬼神無形體，曰今忽得天火，得無為災所中乎？故哭也。變者何謂也？變者，非常也。《耀嘉》曰；“禹將受位，天意大變，迅風靡木，雷雨晝冥。”服秉者何謂也？衣服乍大乍小，言語非常。故《尚書大傳》曰：“時則有服秉也。”孽者何謂也？曰：介蟲生為非常。《尚書大傳》曰：“時則介蟲之孽，時則有龜孽。”堯遭洪水，湯遭大旱，示有譴告乎？堯遭洪水，湯遭大旱，命運時然。所以或災變或異何？各隨其行，因其事也。

What is meant by calamities and anomalies? The Chunqiu Qian Tan Ba says: "A calamity (zai) means harm, punishing in accordance with the affair; an anomaly (yi) means something strange, which stirs first to move him." What shows that calamity involves weeping? The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "The new palace caught fire, and they wept for three days." The Commentary says: "They must weep for three days; why? It is ritual." Weeping for three days over a calamity is because the ancestral temple is where ancestors of earlier generations performed rites; the spirits have no bodies, and it is said that now they suddenly meet fire from Heaven, and might they not be struck by the calamity? Therefore they weep. What is meant by a "change"? A change is something out of the ordinary. The Yao Jia says: "When Yu was about to receive the throne, Heaven's will greatly changed, a swift wind knocked down trees, and thunder and rain darkened the daytime." What is meant by clothing portents? Clothes suddenly become too large or too small, and speech becomes unusual. Hence the Great Commentary on the Book of Documents says: "At this time there are clothing portents." What is meant by a monstrous birth (nie)? It is said: shelled creatures being born is unusual. The Great Commentary on the Book of Documents says: "At this time there are monstrous births of shelled creatures, and monstrous births of turtles." Yao met a great flood, and Tang met a great drought; do these show a rebuke? Yao's flood and Tang's drought were a matter of fate and circumstance. Why are some of these calamities, others anomalies? Each follows his conduct and depends on his affairs.

霜之為言亡也，陽以散雲。雹之為言合也，陰氣專精，積合為雹。

Frost (shuang) means loss (wang), by which yang disperses the cloud qi. Hail (bao) means joining (he): yin qi concentrates, and accumulates and joins to become hail.

日食者必殺之何？陰侵陽也。鼓用牲於社。社者眾陰之主，以朱絲縈之，鳴鼓攻之，以陽責陰也。故《春秋傳》曰：“日食鼓用牲於社。”所以必用牲者，社，地別神也，尊之，故不敢虛責也。日食，大水則鼓於用牲於社，大旱則祭未雨，非苟虛也，助陽責下，求陰之道也。月食救之者，陰失明也，故角尾交日。月食救之者，謂夫人擊鏡，傅人擊杖，庶人之妻楔搔。太平之時，時雨時霽，下以恆陽而以時陽，天地之氣宣也。

Why must one go to the rescue in a solar eclipse? Yin is encroaching on yang. Drums are beaten at the altar of the soil and an animal is sacrificed. The altar of the soil is the master of the many yin; it is bound with vermilion silk, and the drums are beaten to attack it, using yang to rebuke yin. Hence the Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "At a solar eclipse, drums were beaten and animals sacrificed at the altar of the soil." The reason an animal must be used is that the altar of the soil is a separate spirit of Earth, and since it is honored, one dares not rebuke it emptily. At a solar eclipse or a great flood, drums are beaten and an animal sacrificed at the altar; in a great drought one performs the [a rare character lost in the source text during transcription] sacrifice to seek rain. This is not random or empty, but helps yang and rebukes the lower, seeking the Way of yin. Going to rescue at a lunar eclipse is because yin loses its brightness, so the Horn and Tail constellations meet with the sun. Going to rescue at a lunar eclipse means that the lady strikes a mirror, the tutor strikes a staff, and the wives of commoners strike a wedge and scratch. In times of great peace, it rains when it should rain and clears when it should clear; those below, by constant yang, receive yang in due season, and the qi of Heaven and Earth flows freely.

王者所以親耕、後親桑何？以率天下農蠶也。天子親耕以供郊廟之祭，後之親桑以供祭服。《祭義》曰：“天子三推，三公五推，卿大夫七推。”耕於東郊何？東方少陽，農事始起。桑於西郊？西方少陰，女功所成。故《曾子問》曰：“天子耕東田而三反之。”《周官》曰：“後親桑，率外內婦蠶於北郊。”《禮?祭義》曰：“古者天子諸侯，必有公桑蠶室，近外水為之，築周棘牆，而外閉之者也。”

Why does the king plow in person and the queen tend silkworms and mulberries in person? To lead the farming and silk-raising of the realm. The Son of Heaven plows in person to supply the sacrifices at the suburban altar and ancestral temple, and the queen tends silkworms and mulberries in person to supply the sacrificial robes. The Ji Yi says: "The Son of Heaven pushes the plow three times, the Three Dukes five times, and the Ministers and Grandees seven times." Why does he plow in the eastern suburb? The east is lesser yang, and farming work begins to rise. Why are the mulberries in the western suburb? The west is lesser yin, where women's work is accomplished. Hence the Zengzi Wen says: "The Son of Heaven plows the eastern field and goes back and forth three times." The Rites of Zhou says: "The queen tends silkworms and mulberries in person, and leads the women of the inner and outer palace to raise silkworms in the northern suburb." The Rites, in "Ji Yi", says: "In ancient times the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords must have a public mulberry grove and silkworm house, built near an outer stream, with a thorn hedge raised around it and closed from outside."

王者易姓而起，必升封泰山何？教告之義也。始受命之時，改制應天，天下太平，功成封禪，以告太平也。所以必於泰山何？萬物所交代之處也。必於其於何？因高告高，順其類也，故升封者增高也，下禪梁甫之山基廣厚也。刻石紀號者，著己之功跡也，以自效放也。天以高為尊，地以厚為德，故增泰山之高以放天，附梁甫之基以報地，明天地之所命，功成事遂，有益於天地，若高者加高，厚者加厚矣。或曰：封者，金泥銀繩。或曰：石泥金繩，封以印璽。故孔子曰：“升泰山，觀易姓之王，可得而數者七十有餘。

When a king arises with a change of surname, he must climb Mount Tai to perform the Feng sacrifice; why? It is the principle of announcing. At the time of first receiving the mandate, he reforms the institutions to answer Heaven, and when the world is at peace and his merit is complete, he performs the Feng and Shan sacrifices to report the peace. Why must it be on Mount Tai? It is the place where the myriad things hand over from one to the next. Why must it be on the summit of that mountain? He announces the height by means of height, following its kind; so climbing for the Feng sacrifice is adding to height, and below, the Shan sacrifice at Mount Liangfu is to broaden and thicken the foundation. Inscribing stone to record his name proclaims his own achievements, to be a model for himself and be imitated. Heaven takes height as its honor, and Earth takes thickness as its virtue, so he adds height to Mount Tai to take after Heaven, and attaches to the base of Liangfu to repay Earth, showing that it is by the mandate of Heaven and Earth that his merit is complete and affairs are fulfilled, and that he benefits Heaven and Earth, as the high becomes higher and the thick becomes thicker. Some say: the Feng uses gold mud and a silver cord. Others say: stone mud and a gold cord, sealed with a seal. Hence Confucius said: "Ascending Mount Tai, one views the kings who changed surnames, and they number more than seventy."

封者廣也，言禪者，明以成功相傳也。梁甫者，太山旁山名，正於梁甫何？以三皇禪於繹繹之山，明己成功而去，有德者居之。繹繹者，無窮之意也。五帝禪於亭亭者，制度審諦、德著明也。三王禪於梁甫之山者，梁信也，甫輔也，輔天地之道而行之也。太平乃封知告於天，必也於岱宗何？明知易姓也。刻石紀號，知自紀於百王也。燎祭天，報之義也，望祭山川，祀群神也。《詩》云：“於皇明周，陟其高山。”言周太平，封太山也。又曰：“墮山喬獄，允猶翕河。”言望祭山川百神來歸也。

Feng means to broaden; shan (the sacrifice of abdication) means to make clear that one's achievements are handed on. Liangfu is the name of a mountain beside Mount Tai. Why were the shan rites held at Liangfu? Because the Three Sovereigns held the shan at Yiyi Mountain, showing that their work was complete and they had departed, so that a person of virtue might dwell there. Yiyi means endless. The Five Emperors held the shan at Tingting, where institutions were carefully examined and virtue shone forth clearly. The Three Kings held the shan at Mount Liangfu: liang means trustworthiness and fu means assistance, that is, assisting the Way of Heaven and Earth in putting it into practice. The feng rite is performed only in an age of great peace, in order to report to Heaven, and it must be held at Daizong (Mount Tai). Why? Because it makes plain that one knows the surname of the ruling house has changed. Inscribing the stone with one's name shows that one knows one is recorded among the hundred kings. Burning offerings to Heaven expresses the duty of repaying it; sacrificing from afar to mountains and rivers is the worship of the many spirits. The Book of Songs says: "Bright is the Zhou, ascending its lofty mountain." This means that when Zhou reached great peace, the feng rite was performed on Mount Tai. It also says: "Down to the small hills and up to the high peaks, truly they gathered with the Yellow River." This means that when sacrifice was made from afar to mountains and rivers, the hundred spirits came to submit.

天下太平符瑞所以來至者，以為王者承統理，調和陰陽，陰陽和，萬物序，休氣充塞，故符瑞並臻，皆應德而至。德至天則斗極明，日月光，甘露降；德至地則嘉禾生，{艹}莢起，鬯出，太平感；德至文表則景星見，五緯順軌；德至草木朱草生，木連理；德至鳥獸則鳳皇翔，鸞鳥舞，麒麟臻，白虎到，狐九尾，白雉降，白鹿見，白鳥下；德至山陵則景雲出，芝實茂，陵出異丹，阜出蓮莆，山出器車，澤出神鼎；德至淵泉則黃龍見，醴泉通，河出龍圖，洛出龜書，江出大貝，海出明珠；德至八方則祥風至佳氣時喜，鐘律調，音度施，四夷化，越裳貢。

When the world is at great peace, auspicious omens arrive because the king, carrying on the line of rule, governs well and harmonizes yin and yang. When yin and yang are in harmony, the myriad things are in order and the air of good fortune fills the world, so the omens arrive all together, each responding to virtue. When virtue reaches Heaven, the Northern Dipper and the Pole Star are bright, the sun and moon shine, and sweet dew falls. When virtue reaches the Earth, fine grain grows, the [character lost in transcription] pod sprouts, the [character lost in transcription] herb appears, and the great peace is answered. When virtue reaches the heavenly patterns, the Jing star appears and the five planets follow their courses. When virtue reaches plants and trees, the vermilion grass grows and trees join their branches. When virtue reaches birds and beasts, phoenixes soar, luan birds dance, qilin arrive, white tigers come, foxes with nine tails and white pheasants appear, white deer show themselves, and white birds descend. When virtue reaches mountains and hills, auspicious clouds emerge, the zhi fungus flourishes, hills yield rare cinnabar, mounds produce lotus-like plants, mountains yield self-propelled carriages, and marshes yield divine tripods. When virtue reaches deep springs, yellow dragons appear, sweet springs flow, the Yellow River yields the Dragon Chart, the Luo River yields the Turtle Writing, the Yangtze yields great shells, and the sea yields bright pearls. When virtue reaches the eight directions, auspicious winds arrive, fine airs gladden the seasons, bells and pitch-pipes are in tune, musical measures are carried out, the four barbarian peoples are transformed, and Yuechang brings tribute.

孝道至則以蓮莆者，樹名也，其葉大於門扇，不搖自扇，於飲食清涼，助供養也。繼嗣平明則賓連生於房戶。賓連者，木名也，連累相承，故在於房戶，象繼嗣也。日曆得其分度，則{艹}莢生於階間。{艹}莢樹名也，月一日生一莢，十五日畢，至十六日去莢，故莢階生似日月也。賢不肖位不相逾，則平路生於庭。平路者，樹名也，官位得其人則生，失其人則死。

When filial piety reaches its utmost, the lotus-like plant appears. It is a kind of tree whose leaves are larger than a door leaf; it fans itself without being shaken, keeping food and drink cool and helping with the offerings. When the succession is clear and settled, the binlian plant grows by the doors of the rooms. Binlian is a kind of tree whose stems link and continue one another, so it grows at the room doors, symbolizing succession. When the calendar gets its proper divisions, the [character lost in transcription] pod grows between the steps. This is a kind of tree that grows one pod on the first day of each month until the fifteenth, then from the sixteenth drops one pod a day; so the pods grow on the steps, like the sun and moon. When the positions of the worthy and the unworthy do not overstep each other, the pinglu plant grows in the courtyard. Pinglu is a kind of tree that grows when official posts are given to the right people and dies when they are given to the wrong ones.

狐九尾何？狐死首丘，不忘本也，明安不忘危也。必九尾者也？九妃得其所，子孫繁息也。於尾者何？明後當盛也。

Why do foxes have nine tails? When a fox dies, its head points toward its home hill, for it does not forget its origins; this shows not forgetting danger while at ease. Why must it be nine tails? So that the nine consorts each find their place and descendants multiply. Why on the tail? To show that the descendants will prosper.

景星者，大星也。月或不見，景星常見，可以夜作，有益於人民也。

The Jing star is a great star. Sometimes the moon is not visible, but the Jing star is always present, so that people can work at night, to the benefit of the people.

甘露者，美露也，降則物無不盛者也。

Sweet dew is fine dew; when it falls, nothing fails to flourish.

朱草者，赤草也，可以染絳，別尊卑也。

Vermilion grass is red grass; it can be used to dye crimson and to distinguish the honored from the humble.

醴泉者，美泉也，狀若醴酒，可以養老也。

Sweet spring water is fine spring water that looks like sweet wine and can be used to nourish the aged.

嘉禾者，大禾也，成王時有三苗異畝而生，同為一穗大幾盈車，長几充箱。民有得而上之者，成王訪周公而問之，公曰：“三苗為一穗，天下當和為一乎！”以是果有越裳氏重九譯而來矣。

Fine grain is a large grain. In the time of King Cheng, three stalks grew from different plots and merged into a single ear, so large that it nearly filled a cart and so long that it nearly filled a chest. A commoner who found it offered it up. King Cheng asked the Duke of Zhou about it, and the Duke of Zhou said: "Three stalks merged into one ear; the world must be about to be united as one!" Accordingly, the people of Yuechang indeed came, after nine rounds of interpreters.

王者所以巡狩者何？巡者循也，狩牧也，為天下循行守牧民也。道德太平，恐遠近不同化，幽隱有不得所，考禮義，正法度，同律歷，計時月，皆為民也。《尚書》曰：“遂覲東後，葉時月，正日，同律度量衡，修五禮。”《尚書大傳》曰：“見諸侯，問百年，太師陳詩，以觀民命風俗；命市納賈，以觀民好惡；山川神祗，有不舉者為不敬，不敬者削以地；宗廟有不順者為不孝，不孝者黜以爵；變禮易樂為不從，不從君流；改制度衣服為畔，畔者君討，有功者賞之。”《尚書》曰：“明試以功，車服以庸。”

Why do kings make tours of inspection? Xun means to make rounds and shou means to tend; the king makes rounds and tends the people for the world. When morality and great peace prevail, he worries that near and far have different teachings and that hidden and obscure people may not have found their place. So he examines rites and righteousness, corrects laws and standards, unifies the pitch-pipes and calendar, and reckons seasons and months, all for the sake of the people. The Book of Documents says: "Then he received the lords of the east, harmonized the seasons and months, rectified the days, unified the pitch-pipes, measures and weights, and put the five rites in order." The Great Commentary on the Book of Documents says: "He met the lords and asked after those a hundred years old; the Grand Music Master presented poems so that the customs and the people's fate could be observed; he ordered the markets to submit the prices of goods so that the people's likes and dislikes could be observed. Where mountain and river spirits were not sacrificed to, that was disrespect, and for disrespect land was reduced. Where the ancestral temples were not in order, that was unfilial, and for unfilial conduct rank was demoted. Where rites and music were altered, that was disobedience, and the disobedient lord was exiled. Where institutions and clothing were changed, that was rebellion, and the rebellious lord was punished. Those with merit were rewarded." The Book of Documents says: "He tested them openly by their achievements and rewarded them with carriages and robes."

巡狩所以四時出何？當承宗廟，故不逾時也。以夏之仲月者，同律度當得其中也。二月、八月晝夜分，五月、十一月陰陽終。《尚書》曰：“二月東巡守，至於岱宗柴。五月南巡狩，至於南嶽，八月西巡狩，至於西嶽。十有一月朔巡狩，至於北嶽。”

Why does the king tour according to the four seasons? Because he must serve the ancestral temples, he does not stay away longer than one season. He uses the middle month of each season, since unifying the pitch-pipes and measures calls for hitting the mean. In the second and eighth months day and night are equal, and in the fifth and eleventh months yin and yang reach their end. The Book of Documents says: "In the second month he toured the east, reaching Daizong and burning wood. In the fifth month he toured the south, reaching the Southern Peak. In the eighth month he toured the west, reaching the Western Peak. In the eleventh month, at the new moon, he toured the north, reaching the Northern Peak."

所以五歲巡狩何？為大煩也，過五年為太疏也。因天道時有所生，歲有所成。三歲一閏，天道小備；五歲再閏，天道大備。故五歲一巡狩，三年小備，二伯出，述職黜陟。

Why a tour every five years? Too frequent would be a nuisance, while more than five years would be too sparse. It relies on the Way of Heaven, in which seasons bring forth and years bring completion. With an intercalary month every three years the Way of Heaven is partly complete; with two intercalary months in five years, it is fully complete. Hence a tour every five years. At the three-year partial completion, the two senior lords make rounds, receive reports on duties, and demote or promote.

一年物有終始，歲有所成，方伯行國；時有所生，諸侯行邑。《傳》曰：“周公入為三公，出為二伯，中分天下，出黜陟。”《詩》曰：“周公東征，四國是皇。”言東征述職，周公黜陟而天下皆正也。又曰：“蔽芾甘棠，勿翦勿伐，召伯所茇。”言邵公述職，親說舍於野樹之下也。《春秋梁傳》曰：“古之君民以時視民之勤。”

In one year things have their end and beginning and the year brings completion, so the regional chiefs make rounds of the states; as the seasons bring forth, the lords make rounds of their dependent towns. The Commentary says: "The Duke of Zhou entered the court as one of the Three Dukes and went out as one of the two senior lords, dividing the world between them, and made rounds to demote and promote." The Book of Songs says: "The Duke of Zhou campaigned east, and the four states were set right." This means that in the eastern campaign he received reports on duties, demoted and promoted, and the world was put right. It also says: "Luxuriant is the sweet pear tree; do not trim it, do not cut it down, for the Lord of Shao rested beneath it." This means that the Duke of Shao, receiving reports, rested in person beneath a wild tree. The Gu Liang Commentary to the Spring and Autumn Annals says: "In ancient times rulers and people went at the proper seasons to see the people's toil."

巡狩祭天何？本巡狩為祭天，告至。《尚書》曰：“東巡狩，至於岱宗，柴也。”王者出必告廟何？孝子出辭、反面，事死如事生。《尚書》曰：“歸假於祖禰。”《曾子問》曰：“王者、諸侯出，稱告祖禰，使祝遍告五廟。”尊親也。王者將出告天者，示不專也。故《王制》曰：“類於上帝，宜乎社，造於禰。”類祭以祖配不曰接者，尊無二禮，尊尊之義。造於禰，獨見禰何？辭從卑，不復留尊者之命，至禰不嫌不至祖。即祭告天，為告事也，祖，為出辭也。義異。告於尊者，然後乃辭出。

Why does the king sacrifice to Heaven on his tours? Originally he toured in order to sacrifice to Heaven and report his arrival. The Book of Documents says: "In the east he toured, reaching Daizong, and burned wood." Why must the king report to the temple before setting out? A filial son takes leave when going out and reports in person on returning, serving the dead as if they were alive. The Book of Documents says: "On returning, he reported at the temples of the ancestors and the father." The Zengzi Asks says: "When a king or lord sets out, he reports to his ancestors and father by name and has the invocator report in turn to all five temples." This is honoring one's kin. When the king is about to go out, he reports to Heaven, showing that he does not act on his own authority. So the Royal Regulations says: "He performs the lei sacrifice to the Supreme Lord, the yi sacrifice to the altar of the soil, and the zao rite to the father's temple." In the lei sacrifice an ancestor is paired as the associate, but it is not called receiving, for the honored has no second rite; this is the principle of honoring the honored. Why does the zao rite see only the father's temple? Taking leave begins with the lowly and does not detain the honored one's command; once at the father's temple, one is not suspected of failing to reach the ancestors. Sacrificing to Heaven is reporting a matter; reporting to the ancestors is taking leave to depart. The principles differ. One reports first to the honored, and only then takes leave to set out.

王者、諸侯出，必將主何？示有所尊。故《曾子問》曰：“王者將出，必以遷廟主行，載於齊車，示有尊也。”無遷主以幣帛主告於祖禰廟，遂奉以出，每舍奠焉。”蓋貴命也。”必以遷主者，明廟不可空也。

Why do kings and lords always carry the ancestral tablet when they set out? To show that there is someone to honor. So the Zengzi Asks says: "When a king is about to set out, he must carry the tablet of the relocated temple and bear it on the sacred carriage, to show that there is someone to honor." If there is no relocated tablet, he uses silk as a substitute, reports to the temples of the ancestors and father, and then sets out bearing it, making an offering at every halt. "This is honoring the mandate." A relocated tablet must be used, showing that the temple may not be left empty.

王者巡狩，諸侯待於境者何？諸侯以守蕃為職也。《禮?祭義》曰：“天子巡狩，諸侯待於境也。”

When the king tours, why do the lords wait at their borders? Because the lords' duty is to guard the frontier. The Record of Rites, Meaning of Sacrifices, says: "When the Son of Heaven tours, the lords wait at their borders."

王者巡狩，必舍諸侯祖廟何？明尊無二上也，故《禮?坊記》曰：“君適其臣，升自阼階。”示不敢有其室也。《禮》曰：“天子適諸侯，必舍其祖廟。”

When the king tours, why must he stay in the lord's ancestral temple? To show that the honored has no second above him. So the Record of Rites, Fangji chapter, says: "When the ruler comes to his minister's place, he ascends by the eastern steps," showing he does not dare to take possession of the minister's chamber. The Rites says: "When the Son of Heaven comes to a lord, he must stay in his ancestral temple."

王者出，一公以其屬守，二公以其屬從也。

When the king goes out, one duke stays behind with his subordinates to guard, and two dukes go along with their subordinates.

王者巡狩，崩於道，歸葬何？夫太子當為喪主，天下皆來奔喪。京師，四方之中也。即如是，舜葬蒼梧、禹葬會稽？於時尚質，故死則止葬，不重煩擾也。

If the king dies on the road during a tour and is brought back for burial, why? The crown prince must be chief mourner, and the whole world comes to the funeral. The capital is the center of the four directions. If so, what of Shun being buried at Cangwu and Yu at Kuaiji? In their time people were still simple, so on death they were buried where they lay, to avoid troubling anyone further.

何以知太平乃巡狩？以武王不巡狩，至成王乃巡狩。

How do we know the tours are made only in a time of great peace? Because King Wu did not tour; only in King Cheng's time were tours made.

嶽者何謂也？嶽之為言桶，桶功德。東方為岱宗者？言萬物更相代於東方也。南方為霍山者？霍之為言護也，言萬物護也，太陽用事，護養萬物也。西方為華山者？華之為言獲也，言萬物成熟，可得獲也。北方為恆山？恆者，常也，萬物伏藏於北方，有常也。中央為嵩山，言其後大之也。故《尚書大傳》曰：“五嶽謂岱山、霍山、華山、恆山、嵩山也。”謂之瀆何？瀆者，濁也，中國垢濁，發源，東注海，其功著大，故稱瀆也。《爾雅》云：“江、河、淮、濟，為四瀆也。”

What is meant by yue (sacred peak)? Yue means to measure, as in weighing merit and virtue. The east is Daizong, which means that the myriad things replace one another in the east. The south is Mount Huo. Huo means to protect: the myriad things are protected, the sun holds sway, and it protects and nourishes them. The west is Mount Hua. Hua means to harvest: the myriad things ripen and can be gathered in. The north is Mount Heng. Heng means constant: the myriad things hide in the north in constant order. The center is Mount Song, which means to make things greater still. So the Great Commentary on the Book of Documents says: "The Five Peaks are Mount Dai, Mount Huo, Mount Hua, Mount Heng and Mount Song." Why are the rivers called du? Du means turbid: they carry away the filth of the Middle Kingdom, rise at their sources and flow east into the sea, and their merit is great and plain, so they are called du. The Erya says: "The Yangtze, the Yellow River, the Huai and the Ji are the four du."

諸侯所以考黜何？王者所以勉賢抑惡，重民之至也。《尚書》曰：“三載考績，三考黜陟。”

Why do the lords undergo assessment and demotion or promotion? Kings use it to encourage the worthy and restrain the wicked, showing the utmost regard for the people. The Book of Documents says: "An assessment of achievements every three years; after three assessments, demotion or promotion."

禮記九錫：車馬、衣服、樂、朱戶、納陛、虎賁、鉞、弓矢、鬯，皆隨其德可行而賜車馬，能安民者賜衣服，能使民和樂者賜以樂，民眾多者賜以朱戶，能進善者賜以納陛，能退惡者賜虎賁，能誅有罪者賜以鉞，能徵不義者賜以弓矢，孝道備者賜以鬯，以先後與施行之次，自不相逾，相為本末。然安民然後富貴而後樂，樂而後眾乃多賢，賢乃能進善，進善乃能退惡，退惡乃能斷刑。內能正已，外能正人，內外行備，孝道乃生。

The Record of Rites lists the nine bestowals: carriages and horses, robes, music, vermilion doors, stairs recessed into the hall, tiger guards, [character lost in transcription] axes, bow and arrows, and [character lost in transcription] wine. Each is bestowed according to the virtue the person is able to practice. One who can pacify the people is given carriages and horses; one who can make the people harmonious and happy is given music; one whose people are numerous is given vermilion doors; one who can advance the good is given recessed stairs; one who can remove the bad is given tiger guards; one who can execute the guilty is given [character lost in transcription] axes; one who can campaign against the unrighteous is given bow and arrows; one whose filial piety is complete is given [character lost in transcription] wine. In order of precedence and practice, they naturally do not overstep each other and serve as root and branch to one another. Thus when the people are pacified, there is wealth and honor, then music; with music, the people multiply; with many people, there are many worthy ones; worthy ones can advance the good; advancing the good, they can remove the bad; removing the bad, they can settle punishments. Inwardly able to correct oneself and outwardly able to correct others, when inner and outer conduct are complete, filial piety is born.

能安民故賜車馬，以著其功德，安其身。能使人富足，衣食倉廩實，故賜衣服，以彰其體。能使民和樂，故賜之樂，以事其先也。《禮》曰：“夫賜樂者，不得以時王之樂，事其宗廟也。”朱，盛色，戶，所以紀民數也，故民眾多賜朱戶也。古者人君下賢，降階一等而禮之，故進賢賜之納陛，以優之也。既能進善，當能戒惡，故賜虎賁。虎賁者所以戒不虞而距惡。距惡當斷刑，故賜之鉞，所以斷大刑。刑罰既中，則能徵不義，故賜弓矢，弓矢所以徵不義、伐無道也。圭瓚鬯，宗廟之盛禮，故孝道備而賜之鬯，所以極著孝道。孝道純備，故內和外榮，玉以象德，金以配情，芬香條鬯以通神靈。玉飾其本君子之性，金飾其中君子之道。君子有黃中通理之道美素德。金者，精和之至也；玉者，德美之至也；鬯者，芬香之至也。君子有玉瓚、鬯乎，車者以配道德也，其至矣，合天下之極美以通其志也，其唯玉瓚、鬯乎。

Because one who can pacify the people is given carriages and horses, this displays his merit and virtue and gives his person ease. One who can make people prosperous, with clothing, food and granaries full, is given robes, which make his person clearly visible. One who can make the people harmonious and happy is given music, with which to serve his forebears. The Rites says: "One who has been given music may not use the music of the reigning king to serve his ancestral temple." Vermilion is the richest color, and the door is where the number of people is recorded, so when the people are numerous he is given vermilion doors. In ancient times a ruler humbled himself before the worthy and descended one step to receive them, so for advancing the worthy he is given recessed stairs, as a courtesy. One who can advance the good should also be able to guard against evil, so he is given tiger guards, who guard against the unforeseen and resist evil. Resisting evil, he should be able to settle punishments, so he is given [character lost in transcription] axes, with which to decide major punishments. Once punishments have been made fitting, he can campaign against the unrighteous, so he is given bow and arrows, to attack the unrighteous and punish the Way-less. The jade ladle and [character lost in transcription] wine are the grand rite of the ancestral temple, so only when filial piety is complete is [character lost in transcription] wine given, to bring filial piety fully to light. When filial piety is pure and complete, there is inner harmony and outer glory. Jade is used to symbolize virtue, gold to match feeling, and fragrant aromatic wine to communicate with the spirits. Jade adorns the root, which is the nature of the noble man; gold adorns the center, which is the way of the noble man. The noble man has the way of the yellow center and penetrating order, and the virtue of beautiful simplicity. Gold is the utmost of refined harmony; jade is the utmost of fine virtue; aromatic wine is the utmost of fragrance. The noble man has the jade ladle and [character lost in transcription] wine; the carriage is to match his moral virtue, which is at its utmost. To gather the finest things under heaven and so convey one's will, probably only the jade ladle and [character lost in transcription] wine can do it.

車者，謂有赤有青之蓋，朱輪、特能居前左右寢米庶也。以其進止有節，德綏民，路車乘馬，以安其身。言成章，行成規，卷龍之衣服，表顯其德。長於教誨，內懷至仁，則賜時王樂，以化其民。尊賢達德，動作有禮，賜之納陛以安其體，居處修治，房內節，男女時配，貴賤有別，則賜朱戶，以明其德列。威武有矜，嚴仁堅強，賜以虎賁，以備非常。喜怒有節，誅伐刑，賜以鉞，使得專殺。好惡無私，執義不傾，賜以弓矢，使得專征。孝道之美，百行之本也，故賜以瓚，得專為賜也。故《王制》曰：“賜之弓矢然後專殺。”又曰：“賜圭瓚然後為暢，未賜者，資暢於天子。”《王度記》曰：“天子鬯、諸侯薰、大夫杞蘭、庶人艾。”

As for the carriage, it has a canopy of red and green, vermilion wheels, can lead at the front, and allows him to rest at left and right among the crowds. Because his advancing and halting follow measure and his virtue can soothe the people, the state carriage and team of horses are given to set his person at ease. His speech is well-formed and his conduct follows the compass; robes with coiled dragons display his virtue. One who excels at teaching and inwardly holds supreme benevolence is given the music of the reigning king, with which to teach his people. One who honors the worthy, promotes the virtuous, and acts with propriety is given recessed stairs to set his body at ease. One whose dwelling is well ordered, whose inner quarters are regulated, whose men and women are matched in due season, and whose noble and humble are distinguished is given vermilion doors, to make plain the ranks of his virtue. One who is martial and dignified, stern, benevolent and firm is given tiger guards, to guard against the extraordinary. One whose joy and anger are moderate and who punishes and executes by law is given [character lost in transcription] axes, so that he may execute on his own authority. One whose likes and dislikes are impartial and who holds to righteousness without leaning is given bow and arrows, so that he may campaign on his own authority. The beauty of filial piety is the root of all conduct, so the ladle is given so that he may himself make bestowals. So the Royal Regulations says: "Only after being given bow and arrows may one execute on one's own authority." It also says: "Only after being given the jade ladle may one make aromatic wine; those not given it ask the Son of Heaven for the wine." The Records of Royal Regulations says: "The Son of Heaven uses aromatic wine, lords use fragrant herbs, grandees use orchid, and commoners use mugwort."

車馬、衣服、樂三等者，賜與其物，《禮》：“天子賜諸侯民服車，路先設，路下四惡之。”又曰：“諸公奉選服。”《王制》曰：“天子賜諸侯樂則，以將之。”《詩》曰：“君子來朝，何錫與之。雖無與之，路車乘馬，又何與之？玄袞及黼。”《書》曰：“明試以功，車服以庸。”朱戶、納陛、虎賁者，皆與之制度，而鉞、弓矢、玉釒贊皆與之，物各因其宜也。者，黑黍，一稃二米。鬯者，以百草之香郁金合而釀之成為鬯。陽達於牆屋，入於淵泉，所以灌地降神也。玉瓚者，器名也，所以灌鬯之器也，以圭飾其柄，灌鬯貴玉器也。

The three grades of carriages and horses, robes and music are given as actual objects. The Rites says: "The Son of Heaven gives the lords the people's robes and carriages; the state carriages are displayed first, four horses below the carriage." It also says: "The dukes present the selected robes." The Royal Regulations says: "When the Son of Heaven gives the lords music, he sends it off with [character lost in transcription]." The Book of Songs says: "When the noble man comes to court, what shall we give him? Though we have nothing to give, a state carriage and four horses, what more shall we give? A dark dragon robe with embroidered skirt." The Documents says: "He tested them openly by their achievements and rewarded them with carriages and robes." Vermilion doors, recessed stairs and tiger guards are given as institutions; whereas the [character lost in transcription] axes, bow and arrows and jade ladle are given as actual objects, each as fits. [Character lost in transcription] is black millet, with two grains in one husk. Aromatic wine is made by brewing the fragrance of the hundred herbs together with turmeric. Yang penetrates walls and houses and enters deep springs, so it is used to pour libations to the ground and bring down the spirits. The jade ladle is a named vessel, used for pouring aromatic wine, its handle adorned with a jade tablet; in pouring libations, jade vessels are the most valued.

所以三歲一考績何？三年有成，故於是賞有功，黜不肖。《尚書》曰：“三載考績，三考黜陟。”何以知始考輒黜之？《尚書》曰：“三年一考，少黜以地。”《書》所以言三考黜者，謂爵土異也。小國考之有功，增土進爵；後考無功，削黜，後考有功，上而賜之矣。五十里不過五賜而進爵土，七十里不過七賜而進爵土，能有小大，行有進退也。一說：盛德始封百里者，賜三等，得征伐、專殺、斷獄。七十里伯始封賜二等，至虎賁百人。後有功，賜弓矢。後有功，賜鬯，增爵為侯，益土百里。復有功，入為三公。五十里子男始封賜一等，至樂則。復有功，稍賜至虎賁，增爵為伯。復有功，稍賜至鬯，增爵為侯。未賜鉞者，從大國連率、方伯而斷獄。

Why is there an assessment every three years? Three years bring completion, so at that time the meritorious are rewarded and the unworthy demoted. The Book of Documents says: "An assessment of achievements every three years; after three assessments, demotion or promotion." How do we know demotion begins at the first assessment? The Book of Documents says: "With an assessment every three years, land is gradually reduced." The Documents says demotion after three assessments, meaning that rank and land are different matters. When a small state is assessed and has merit, its land is increased and its rank advanced; if a later assessment shows no merit, it is reduced and demoted; if a later one shows merit, it is advanced and rewarded. A state of fifty li advances in rank and land after no more than five bestowals; a state of seventy li, after no more than seven. Abilities are large or small, and conduct advances or retreats. One account says: those of abundant virtue first enfeoffed with a hundred li are given three grades, able to campaign, to execute on their own authority and to settle lawsuits. A count first enfeoffed with seventy li is given two grades, up to a hundred tiger guards. For later merit he is given bow and arrows. For later merit he is given [character lost in transcription] wine, raised in rank to marquis, with another hundred li of land. For further merit he enters the court as one of the Three Dukes. A viscount or baron first enfeoffed with fifty li is given one grade, which is music. For further merit he is gradually given up to tiger guards and raised in rank to count. For further merit he is gradually given up to [character lost in transcription] wine and raised in rank to marquis. One not given [character lost in transcription] axes follows a great state's chief or regional lord in settling lawsuits.

受命之五，致太平之主，美群臣上下之功，故盡封之。及中興征伐，大功皆封，所以著大功。盛德之士亦封之，所以尊有德也。以德封者，必試之為附庸，三年有功，因而封五十里。元士有功者亦為附庸，世其位。大夫有功成，封五十里。卿功成，封七十里。公功成，封百里。士有功德遷為大夫，大夫有功德遷為卿，卿有功德遷為公，故爵主有德、封主有功也。

A king who has received the mandate and brought about great peace praises the merit of his ministers high and low, and so enfeoffs them all. In a restoration campaign, all great merit is enfeoffed in order to make great merit plain. Men of abundant virtue are also enfeoffed, in order to honor virtue. One enfeoffed for virtue must first serve as a dependent vassal; with three years of merit he is then enfeoffed with fifty li. A senior knight with merit also becomes a dependent vassal, with hereditary salary and rank. A grandee who completes meritorious work is enfeoffed with fifty li. A minister who completes his work is enfeoffed with seventy li. A duke who completes his work is enfeoffed with a hundred li. A knight with merit and virtue is promoted to grandee, a grandee to minister, and a minister to duke, so rank is governed by virtue and enfeoffment by merit.

諸侯有九賜習其賜者何？子之能否未可知也。或曰得之，但未得行其習以專也，三年有功則皆得用之矣。二考無功則削其地，而賜自並知，明本非其身所得也。身得之者，得以賜，當稍黜之，爵所以封賢也。三公功成當封而死，得立其子為附庸，賢者之體能有一也，不二矣。一削為七十里侯，再削為七十里伯，三削為寄公。七十里伯，一削為五十里伯，一削為五十里子，三削地盡。五十里子，一削為三十里子，再削為三十里男，三削地盡。五十里男，一削為三十里男，再削為三十里附庸，三削爵盡。

Why do the lords have the nine bestowals and practice those bestowals? Whether a son will prove capable is not yet known. Some say they have been received already, but he cannot yet exercise the full practice of them; after three years of merit he can use them all. If two assessments show no merit, his land is reduced, and the bestowals are naturally understood to go with it, showing that they were not originally his by his own person. What one obtains by oneself and can claim by bestowal should be gradually demoted. Rank is for enfeoffing the worthy. If one of the Three Dukes who has completed his merit and should be enfeoffed dies, his son may be established as a dependent vassal; the worthy person's body can hold one kind only and cannot hold two. A marquis of seventy li reduced once becomes a marquis of seventy li again, reduced again a count of seventy li, and reduced a third time a lord without a domain. A count of seventy li reduced once becomes a count of fifty li, reduced again a viscount of fifty li, and reduced a third time loses all his land. A viscount of fifty li reduced once becomes a viscount of thirty li, reduced again a baron of thirty li, and reduced a third time loses all his land. A baron of fifty li reduced once becomes a baron of thirty li, reduced again a dependent vassal of thirty li, and reduced a third time loses all his rank.

所以至三削何？禮成於三，三三而不改，雖反無益矣也。《尚書》曰：“三考黜陟。”

Why is it three reductions? Rites are completed in three; if after three he still has not changed, then even reversing course would be of no benefit. The Book of Documents says: "After three assessments, demotion or promotion."

先削地、後絀爵者何？爵者，尊號也；地者，人所任也。今不能治廣土眾民，故先削其土地也。故《王制》曰：“宗廟有不順者，君絀以爵；山川神祗有不舉者，君削以地。”明爵土不相隨也。或曰：惡人貪狼重土，故先削其所重者以懼之也。

Why is land reduced first and rank removed afterward? Rank is an honored title; land is what a person is charged with. If he can no longer govern broad lands and many people, his land is reduced first. So the Royal Regulations says: "Where the ancestral temples are not in order, the ruler demotes his rank; where mountain and river spirits are not sacrificed to, the ruler reduces his land." This shows that rank and land do not follow each other. Some say: wicked people are greedy and wolfish and value land, so first reducing what they value makes them fear.

諸侯始封爵土相隨者何？君子重德薄刑，賞疑從重，《詩》云：“三曰叔父，建爾元子，俾侯於魯。”

When a feudal lord is first enfeoffed, why do his rank and his land go together? A gentleman values virtue and makes light of punishment, and where a reward is in doubt he gives the heavier one. The Book of Songs says: "The king said, 'Uncle, I establish your eldest son, and let him be marquis in Lu.'"

君幼稚，唯考不黜者何？君子不備責童子也。《禮》八十曰耄，九十曰悼，悼與耄。雖有罪，不加刑焉。

When a ruler is young, why is he not demoted even when his performance is reviewed? A gentleman does not demand completeness from a child. According to the Rites, one of eighty is called a mao, and one of ninety is called a dao. Even if a dao or a mao is guilty of an offense, no punishment is imposed.

二王后不貶黜者何？尊賓客、重先王也，以其當公也。罪惡足以絕之即絕，更立其次。周公誅祿甫，立微子。

Why are the descendants of the two earlier dynasties not demoted or dismissed? It honors them as guests and shows respect for the former kings, since their rank is equal to that of a duke. If their wickedness is great enough to cut them off, they are cut off, and the next in line is installed. The Duke of Zhou executed Lufu and installed the Viscount of Wei.

妻父母不削，己昆弟削而不黜何？非以賢能得之也。至於老小但令得大夫受其罪而已。

Why is the territory of a wife's parents not reduced, while the lord's own brothers have theirs reduced but are not dismissed? They did not obtain their positions through worth and ability. As for the old and the young, they are only allowed to hold the rank of a grand master, and merely bear the punishment themselves.

諸侯喑聾跛惡疾，不免黜者何？尊人君也。《春秋》曰：“甲戌、己丑，陳侯鮑卒。”《傳》曰：“甲戌之日亡，己丑之死而得。”有狂易之病，蜚亡而死，由不絕也。

Why are lords who are mute, deaf, lame, [a rare character lost in transcription], or afflicted with a foul disease not necessarily dismissed? It is to honor the ruler of men. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "On the jiaxu and jichou days, Marquis Bao of Chen died." The Commentary says: "He was lost on the jiaxu day, and word of his death was received on the jichou day." He had a madness that made him wander, and he vanished and died, so his line was not cut off.

世子有惡疾廢者何？以其不可承先祖也，故《春秋傳》曰：“兄弟何以不立？疾也。何疾？惡疾也。”

Why is a crown prince deposed for a foul disease? Because he cannot serve the ancestors with offerings. Hence the Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Why was the brother not installed? Because of illness. What illness? A foul disease."

王者所以不臣三，何也？謂天王之後，妻之父母，夷狄也。不臣二王之後者，尊先王通天下之三統也。《詩》云：“有客有客，亦白其馬。”謂微子朝周也。《尚書》曰：“虞賓在位。”不臣丹朱也。不臣妻父母何？妻者，與己一體，恭承宗廟，欲得其歡心，上承先祖，下繼萬世，傳於無窮，故不臣也。《春秋》曰：“紀季姜歸於京師。”父母之於子，雖為王后，尊不加於父母，加王何。王者不臣也。又譏宋三世內娶於國中，謂無臣也。夷狄者，與中國絕域異俗，非中和氣所生，非禮義所能化，故不臣也。《春秋傳》曰：“夷狄相誘，君子不疾。”《尚書大傳》曰：“正朔所不加，即君子所不臣也。”

A true king has three kinds of people he does not treat as subjects. What are they? They are the descendants of the two earlier dynasties, the parents of his wife, and the Yi and Di barbarians. He does not treat the descendants of the two earlier dynasties as subjects in order to honor the former kings and to carry through the Three Lines of Succession of the world. The Book of Songs says: "There is a guest, there is a guest, and his horse too is white." This speaks of the Viscount of Wei coming to court at Zhou. The Book of Documents says: "The guest of Yu holds his place." This means Danzhu was not treated as a subject. Why does he not treat his wife's parents as subjects? His wife is one body with him; she reverently serves the ancestral temple, and he must win their hearts in order to receive the ancestors above and continue the line below for ten thousand generations without end, so he does not treat them as subjects. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "Jisi Jiang returned to the capital." Toward parents, even when their daughter has become queen, honor is not placed above them, yet here it is placed on the king. Why? A true king does not treat them as subjects. It also criticizes the three generations of Song who married within their own state, meaning they had no subjects. The Yi and Di barbarians live in lands cut off from China and have different customs; they were not born of the harmonious central qi and cannot be transformed by ritual and righteousness, so they are not treated as subjects. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "When the Yi and Di deceive one another, the gentleman does not hate it." The Great Commentary on the Book of Documents says: "Those to whom the calendar and the first day of the year do not extend are those whom the gentleman does not treat as subjects."

王者有不臣者五，謂祭尸、受授之師，將帥用兵、三老、五更。不臣祭尸者，方與尊者配也。不臣受授之師者，尊師重道，欲使極陳天人之意也，故《禮?學記》曰：“當其為師，則不臣也。當其為屍，則不臣也。”不臣將帥用兵者，重士眾為敵國，國不可從外治，兵不可從內御，欲成其威，一其令。《春秋》之義，兵不稱使，明不可臣也。不臣三老、五更者，欲率天下，為人子弟。《禮》曰：“父事三老，兄事五更。”

A true king has five further kinds of people he does not treat as subjects: the impersonator of the dead in sacrifice, a teacher who transmits instruction, a general commanding troops, the Three Elders, and the Five Seniors. He does not treat the impersonator of the dead as a subject because that person is being matched with the honored ancestor. He does not treat a teacher as a subject in order to honor the teacher and the Way, so that the teacher may fully set out the meaning of Heaven and man. Hence the Record of Learning in the Rites says: "When he serves as teacher, he is not treated as a subject; when he serves as impersonator, he is not treated as a subject." He does not treat a general commanding troops as a subject because the soldiers are regarded as facing an enemy state; the state cannot be governed from outside, and the army cannot be controlled from within, so that the general may establish his authority and unify his orders. By the principle of the Spring and Autumn Annals, an army is not described as "sent," which shows that the general cannot be treated as a subject. He does not treat the Three Elders and Five Seniors as subjects in order to lead the whole world in acting as sons and younger brothers. The Rites say: "Serve the Three Elders as fathers, and the Five Seniors as elder brothers."

王者不純臣諸侯何？尊重之。以其列土傳子孫，世世稱君，南面而治。凡不臣異。朝則迎之於著，覲則待之於阼階，升階自西階，為庭燎，設九賓，享禮而後歸。是異於眾臣也。

Why does a true king not treat the feudal lords entirely as subjects? Out of respect for them. They hold divided territory that they pass to their descendants, generation after generation they are called lords, and they govern facing south. In every case where subjects are not treated as subjects, the treatment differs. At court audience he receives them at the screen, at the formal audience he waits at the eastern steps, they ascend by the western steps, courtyard torches are set, nine ushers are arranged, and after the presentation ceremony they return. This is different from ordinary ministers.

始封之君不臣諸父、弟何？不忍以己一日之功德加於諸父、昆弟也。故《禮?服傳》曰：“封君之子不臣諸父，封君之孫盡臣之。”

Why does a lord who is first enfeoffed not treat his paternal uncles and younger brothers as subjects? He cannot bear to place the merit and virtue of a single day of his own above his uncles and brothers. Hence the Mourning Commentary in the Rites says: "The son of a enfeoffed lord does not treat his paternal uncles as subjects; the grandson of an enfeoffed lord treats them all as subjects."

《禮?服傳》曰：“子得為父臣者，不遺善之義也。”《詩》云：“文武受命，召公雖翰。”召公，文王子也。《傳》曰：“子不得為父臣者，閨門尚和，朝廷尚敬，人不能無過失，為恩傷義也。”

The Mourning Commentary in the Rites says: "That a son can act as his father's minister is a matter of not abandoning the principle of goodness." The Book of Songs says: "Wen and Wu received the mandate, and the Duke of Shao was their main support." The Duke of Shao was a son of King Wen. The Commentary says: "A son cannot be his father's minister, because within the inner chambers harmony is valued, while at court reverence is valued; people cannot be without faults, and affection would damage righteousness."

王者臣不得為諸侯臣，以其尊當與諸侯同。《春秋傳》曰：“許公不世，待以初。”或曰：王者臣得復為諸侯臣者，為衰世主上不明，賢者非其罪而去，道不施行，百姓不得其所，復令得為諸侯臣，施行其道。《易》曰：“不事王侯。”此據言王之致仕臣也，言不事王可知，復言侯者，明年少復得仕於諸侯也。

A minister of the true king cannot become a minister of a feudal lord, because his dignity should be equal to that of the lords. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The Duke of Xu did not pass on his rank by succession, and was treated with the ritual of the original grant." Some say: a minister of the true king may later become a minister of a lord, because in a declining age the ruler is not enlightened, and a worthy man who has not left because of his own fault, whose Way cannot be practiced and whose people cannot find their place, may then be allowed to serve a lord and carry out his Way. The Book of Changes says: "He does not serve kings or lords." This is spoken on the basis of a minister of the king who has retired from office; that he does not serve the king is already clear, and that it also says "lords" shows that, being young, he can still hold office with the lords.

王者臣有不名者五：先王老臣不名。親與先王戮力共治國同功於天下，故尊而不名也。《尚書》曰：“諮，爾伯。”不言名也，不名者，貴賢者而已。共成先祖功德，德加於百姓者也。《春秋》曰：“單父不言名。”《傳》曰：“大夫之命於天子者大也。”盛德之士不名，尊賢也。《春秋》曰：“公弟叔ツ。”諸父、諸兄不名。諸父、諸兄者，親與己父、兄有敵體之義也。《詩》云：“王曰叔父。”《春秋傳》曰：“王禮者何？無長之稱也。不名盛德之士者，不可屈爵祿也。”故《韓詩內傳》曰：“師臣者帝，交友受臣者王，臣臣者爵，魯臣者亡不行。”

There are five kinds of ministers of the true king whom he does not call by name. First, the old ministers of the former king are not called by name. They personally joined forces with the former king to govern the state and shared merit in the world, so they are honored and not named. The Book of Documents says: "Ah, you, Elder." He is not called by name. Not naming him is only to honor a worthy man. Those who together completed the merit and virtue of the ancestors and whose virtue extended to the people are such. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "Shanfu was not named." The Commentary says: "A grand master appointed by the Son of Heaven is great." A man of flourishing virtue is not called by name, which honors the worthy. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "Shu Xi, younger brother of the duke." Paternal uncles and elder brothers are not called by name. Paternal uncles and elder brothers are, in kinship, the equals of one's own father and elder brother in the principle of equal standing. The Book of Songs says: "The king said, 'Uncle.'" The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "What is the king's ritual? It is that there are no terms of address by age. A man of flourishing virtue is not called by name, because rank and salary cannot be forced upon him." Hence the Inner Commentary on the Han Odes says: "One who takes teachers as his ministers is an emperor; one who is served by friends as ministers is a king; one who takes ministers as ministers gains rank; one who treats ministers as slaves and captives is destroyed and cannot go on."

天子下至士，皆有蓍龜者，重事決疑，亦不自專。《尚書》曰：“女則有大疑，謀及卿士，謀及庶人，謀及卜筮。”定天下之吉凶，成天下之者，莫善乎蓍龜。

From the Son of Heaven down to the scholar, all have milfoil stalks and tortoise shells. This is to take matters seriously and settle doubts, and not to decide on one's own. The Book of Documents says: "If you have a great doubt, consult your ministers and officers, consult the common people, consult the tortoise and the milfoil." To settle the fortunes and misfortunes of the world and to accomplish what the world [a rare character lost in transcription] [a rare character lost in transcription], nothing is better than the milfoil and the tortoise.

《禮三正記》曰：“天子龜長一尺二寸，諸侯一尺，大夫八寸，士六寸。龜陰，故數偶也。天子蓍長九尺，諸侯七尺，大夫五尺，士三尺。蓍陽，故數奇也。”

The Record of the Three Corrections in the Rites says: "The tortoise of the Son of Heaven is one foot two inches long, that of a feudal lord one foot, that of a grand master eight inches, that of a scholar six inches. The tortoise is yin, so even numbers are used. The milfoil of the Son of Heaven is nine feet long, that of a lord seven feet, of a grand master five feet, of a scholar three feet. Milfoil is yang, so odd numbers are used."

所以先謀及卿士何？先盡人事，念而不能得，思而不能知，然後問於蓍龜。聖人獨見先睹，必問著龜何？示不自專也。或曰：清微無端緒，非聖人所及，聖人亦疑之。《尚書》曰：“女則有疑。”謂武王也。乾草枯骨，眾多非一，獨以灼龜何？此天地之間壽考之物，故問之也。龜之為言久也，蓍之為言耆也，久長意也。龜曰卜、蓍曰筮何？卜，赴也，爆見兆也；者信也，見其卦也。《尚書》曰：“卜三龜。”《禮?士冠經》曰：“筮於廟門外。”

Why does he first consult his ministers and officers? He first exhausts human effort; if he reflects and cannot find the answer, and thinks and cannot know, only then does he ask the milfoil and the tortoise. A sage can foresee and see ahead alone, yet he still must ask the milfoil and tortoise. Why? To show that he does not decide on his own. Some say: the subtle and the faint have no visible beginning, and are beyond even what a sage can reach, so even a sage has doubts. The Book of Documents says: "If you have a doubt." This is spoken of King Wu. Dry grass and withered bones are many and not uniform, yet only the scorched tortoise is used. Why? These are long-lived things between Heaven and earth, so they are consulted. The word for tortoise means "long," and the word for milfoil means "elder," meaning lasting for a long time. The tortoise is called bu and the milfoil is called shi. Why? Bu means to burst, cracking open to show the omen [a rare character lost in transcription]; shi means to be trustworthy, showing its hexagram. The Book of Documents says: "Divine with three tortoises." The Capping Ceremony of the Scholar in the Rites says: "Divine with the milfoil outside the temple gate."

筮畫卦所以必於廟何？托義歸智於先祖至尊，故因先祖而問之也。

Why must the drawing of hexagrams with the milfoil take place in the ancestral temple? One entrusts righteousness and returns wisdom to the most honored ancestors, so one borrows the ancestors to ask.

卜，春秋何方？以為於西方東面，蓋蓍之處也。卜時西向，己卜退，東向。問蓍於東方面，以少問老之義。

In tortoise divination, which direction is used in spring and autumn? It is held that one stands in the west facing east, probably the place of the milfoil. When one divines with the tortoise one faces west, and when finished one withdraws and faces east. Asking the milfoil while standing in the east follows the principle of the young asking the old.

皮弁素積，求之於質也。《禮》曰：“皮弁素積，筮於廟門之外。”

The leather cap and the plain lower garment are worn to seek simplicity. The Rites say: "In the leather cap and plain lower garment, divine with the milfoil outside the temple gate."

或曰：天子占卜九人，諸侯七人，大夫五人，士三人。又《尚書》曰：“三人占，則從二人之言。”

Some say: the Son of Heaven has nine diviners, a feudal lord seven, a grand master five, and a scholar three. Also, the Book of Documents says: "When three people divine, follow the words of two."

不見吉凶於蓍，復以卜何？蓍者，陽道多變，變乃成。

If no good or bad fortune can be seen in the milfoil, why does one then use the tortoise? Milfoil belongs to the yang way, which is full of change, and it is only after changing that things are completed.

龜以荊火灼之何？《禮?雜記》曰：“龜，陰之老也。蓍，陽之老也。龍非水不處，龜非火不兆。以陽動陰也。”必以荊者，取其究音也。《禮三正記》曰：“灼龜以荊。”以火動龜，不以水動蓍何？以為嘔則是也。

Why is the tortoise scorched with thorn-wood fire? The Miscellaneous Records in the Rites say: "The tortoise is the elder of yin. The milfoil is the elder of yang. A dragon does not dwell without water, and a tortoise does not show omens without fire. Yang is used to stir yin." Thorn-wood must be used, taking the sound meaning "to exhaust." The Record of the Three Corrections in the Rites says: "Scorch the tortoise with thorn-wood." Why is fire used to stir the tortoise, but water not used to stir the milfoil? It is held that vomiting is like this.

蓍龜敗則埋之何？重之，不欲人襲尊者也。

Why are milfoil stalks and tortoise shells buried when they are worn out? They are valued, and one does not want people to carry on using such an honored thing.

《周官》曰：“凡國之大事，先筮而後卜。凡卜，人君視體，大夫視色，士視墨。”“凡人卜事，視高，揚火以作龜。”“凡取龜用秋時，攻龜用冬時。”

The Rites of Zhou say: "In every great matter of the state, first divine with the milfoil and then with the tortoise. In every tortoise divination, the ruler looks at the body of the crack, the grand master looks at its color, and the scholar looks at the ink." "In every divination for a person's affairs, one looks at the height, and raises the fire to work the tortoise." "In every case, tortoises are collected in autumn and prepared in winter."

聖人者何？聖者，通也，道也，聲也。道無所不通，明無所不照，聞聲知情，與天地合德，日月合明，四時合序，鬼神合吉凶。《禮別名記》曰：“五人曰茂，十人曰選，百人曰俊，千人曰英，倍英曰賢，萬人曰傑，萬傑曰聖。”

What is a sage? Sage means penetrating, it means the Way, it means sound. The Way is penetrating everywhere, his clarity illuminates everything, and on hearing a sound he knows the feeling behind it; he matches Heaven and earth in virtue, matches the sun and moon in brightness, matches the four seasons in order, and matches the spirits in fortune and misfortune. The Record of Distinguishing Names in the Rites says: "One in five is called mao, one in ten is called xuan, one in a hundred is called jun, one in a thousand is called ying, double a ying is called a worthy, one in ten thousand is called a jie, and the best of ten thousand jie is called a sage."

聖人未沒時，寧知其聖乎？曰知之。《論語》曰：“太宰問子貢曰：‘夫子聖者歟？’孔子曰：‘太宰知我乎？’”聖人亦自知聖乎？曰：知之。孔子曰：“文王既沒，文不在茲乎。”

Before a sage has passed away, can he already be known as a sage? It is said: yes. The Analects says: "The grand steward asked Zigong: 'Is your master a sage?' Confucius said: 'Does the grand steward understand me?'" Does a sage also know himself to be a sage? It is said: yes. Confucius said: "With King Wen gone, is culture not here with me?"

何以知帝、王聖人也？《易》曰：“古者伏羲氏之王天下也，於是始作八卦。”又曰：“聖人之作易也。”又曰：“伏羲氏沒，神農氏作。神農沒，黃帝、堯、舜氏作。”文俱言作，明皆聖人也。《論語》曰：“聖乎堯舜，其由病諸。”

How do we know that the emperors and kings were sages? The Book of Changes says: "In ancient times, when Fuxi ruled the world as king, he began to make the eight trigrams." It also says: "The sage made the Changes." It also says: "When Fuxi died, Shennong arose. When Shennong died, the houses of the Yellow Emperor, Yao and Shun arose." The text always says "made," which shows they were all sages. The Analects says: "Even a sage like Yao or Shun probably worried about these things."

何以言禹、湯聖人？《論語》曰：“巍巍乎舜、禹之有天下而不預焉。”與舜比方巍巍，知禹、湯聖人。《春秋傳》曰：“湯以盛德，故放桀。”

On what basis do we say that Yu and Tang were sages? The Analects says: "How lofty were Shun and Yu, who possessed the world and yet were not concerned with it." Being compared in loftiness with Shun, we know that Yu and Tang were sages. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Because of his flourishing virtue, Tang banished Jie."

何以言文王、武王、周公皆聖人？《詩》曰：“文王受命。”非聖不能受命。《易》曰：“湯武革命，順乎天。”湯武與文王比方。《孝經》曰：“則周公其人也。”下言“夫聖人之德，又何以加於孝乎？”

On what basis do we say that King Wen, King Wu and the Duke of Zhou were all sages? The Book of Songs says: "King Wen received the mandate." Without being a sage one cannot receive the mandate. The Book of Changes says: "Tang and Wu changed the mandate, following Heaven." Tang and Wu are compared with King Wen. The Classic of Filial Piety says: "That would be the Duke of Zhou." It goes on: "What could the virtue of a sage add to filial piety?"

何以言皋陶聖人也？以《自篇》曰：“若稽古皋陶”。聖人而能為舜陳道。“朕言惠可底行。”又：“旁施象刑，維明”。

On what basis do we say that Gao Yao was a sage? Because the Counsels of Gao Yao says: "Examining antiquity, Gao Yao." Only a sage could set out the Way for Shun. "My words are kind and can be put into practice." And: "Display widely the symbolic punishments, and it will be clear."

又聖人皆有表異，《傳》曰：“伏羲祿、衡連珠、唯大目、鼻龍伏，作《易》八卦以應樞。黃帝顏，得天匡陽，上法中宿，取象文昌。顓頊戴午，是謂清明，發節移度，蓋象招搖。帝嚳駢齒，上法月參，康度成紀，取理陰陽。堯眉八彩，是謂通明，曆象日月、璇璣玉衡。舜重瞳子，是謂玄景，上應攝提，以象三光。”

Moreover, sages all have distinguishing marks. The Commentary says: "Fuxi had a bright, strung-together brow and large eyes, and his nose was like a crouching dragon; he made the eight trigrams of the Changes to answer the pivot. The Yellow Emperor had a dragon face, gained Heaven's support for yang, took the lunar mansions above as his model, and drew his image from the Wenchang star. Zhuanxu bore a shield on his head, which was called clear brightness; he set the seasons and shifted the measures, drawing his image from the Zhaoyao star. Emperor Ku had joined teeth, took the moon and the Shen constellation above as his model, set the measures and established order, and used them to govern yin and yang. Yao had eyebrows of eight colors, which was called penetrating brightness; he calculated the sun and moon, the jade armillary sphere and its crossbar. Shun had double pupils, which was called dark radiance; above he answered the Shexi star and drew his image from the three lights."

《禮》曰：“禹耳三漏，是謂大通，興利除害，決河疏江。皋陶馬喙，是謂至誠，決獄明白，察於人情。湯臂三肘，是謂柳翼，攘去不義，萬民鹹息。文王四乳，是謂至仁，天下所歸，百姓所親。武王望羊，是謂攝揚，盱目陳兵，天下富昌。周公背僂，是謂強俊，成就周道，輔於幼主。孔子反宇，是謂尼甫，立德澤所興，藏元通流。”聖人所以能獨見前睹，與神通精者，蓋皆天所生也。

The Rites say: "Yu had ears with three holes, which was called great penetration; he promoted benefit and removed harm, and opened the rivers and cleared the streams. Gao Yao had a horse's beak, which was called utmost sincerity; he decided cases clearly and understood human feelings. Tang's arm had three elbows, which was called willow wings; he drove away injustice, and the ten thousand people all found rest. King Wen had four breasts, which was called utmost benevolence; the world turned to him, and the people held him dear. King Wu looked up as if gazing at a ram, which was called gathering and raising; he opened his eyes wide and set out the troops, and the world prospered. The Duke of Zhou had a stooped back, which was called strong and eminent; he completed the way of Zhou and assisted the young ruler. Confucius had a head with a hollow like a roof, which was called Nifu; he established virtue and grace, and hid the origin that flows through everything." The reason sages can foresee and see ahead alone, and communicate with spirits and refine essence, is probably that they were all born of Heaven.

風者何謂也？風之為言萌也，養物成功，所以象八卦。

What is the meaning of wind? Wind means to sprout; it nurtures things to completion, and is used to represent the eight trigrams.

陽立於五，極於九，五九四十五日變，變以為風，陰合陽以生風。距冬至四十五日條風至。條者，王也。四十五日明庶風至。明庶者，迎眾也。四十五日清明風至。清明者，青芒也。四十五日景風至。景大風，陽氣長養。四十五日涼風至。涼，寒也，行陰氣也。四十五日昌盍風至。戒收藏也。四十五日不周風至。不周者，不交也，陰陽未合化也。四十五日廣莫風。廣莫者，大也，同陽氣也。

Yang stands at five and reaches its limit at nine; every five times nine, forty-five days, it changes, and the change becomes wind; yin joins yang and produces wind. Forty-five days after the winter solstice the Tiao wind arrives. Tiao means king. Forty-five days later the Mingshu wind arrives. Mingshu means welcoming the multitude. Forty-five days later the Qingming wind arrives. Qingming means green sprouts. Forty-five days later the Jing wind arrives. Jing means great wind; yang qi grows and nourishes. Forty-five days later the Liang wind arrives. Liang means cold, and it moves yin qi. Forty-five days later the Changhe wind arrives. It warns of storing and gathering in. Forty-five days later the Buzhou wind arrives. Buzhou means not meeting; yin and yang have not yet merged and transformed. Forty-five days later comes the Guangmo wind. Guangmo means vast, and it gathers together the yang qi.

故曰：條風至地暖，明庶風至萬物產，清明風至物形乾，景風至棘造實，涼風至黍禾乾，昌盍風至生薺麥，不周風至蟄蟲匿，廣莫風至則萬物伏。是以王者承順之，條風至則出輕刑、解稽留，明庶風至則修封疆、埋田疇，清明風至出幣帛、使諸侯，景風至則爵有德、封有功，涼風至報地德，化四鄉，昌盍風至則申象刑、飾倉，不周風至則築宮室、修城郭，廣莫風至則斷大辟、行獄刑。

Hence it is said: when the Tiao wind arrives, the earth warms; when the Mingshu wind arrives, the myriad things come forth; when the Qingming wind arrives, the forms of things dry; when the Jing wind arrives, the jujube bears fruit; when the Liang wind arrives, millet and grain dry; when the Changhe wind arrives, shepherd's purse and wheat grow; when the Buzhou wind arrives, hibernating insects hide; when the Guangmo wind arrives, all things lie hidden away. Therefore the true king follows them: when the Tiao wind arrives he lightens punishments and releases those held in detention; when the Mingshu wind arrives he repairs boundaries and tends the fields; when the Qingming wind arrives he brings out coins and silks and sends envoys to the lords; when the Jing wind arrives he gives rank to the virtuous and enfeoffs the meritorious; when the Liang wind arrives he repays the virtue of the earth and teaches the four quarters; when the Changhe wind arrives he proclaims the symbolic punishments and repairs the [a rare character lost in transcription] granaries; when the Buzhou wind arrives he builds palaces and repairs city walls; when the Guangmo wind arrives he decides capital cases and carries out prison sentences.

商、賈何謂也？商之為言，商其遠近、度其有亡、通四方之物，故謂之商也。賈之為言固，固有其用物以待民來，以求其利者也。行曰商，止曰賈。《易》曰：“先王以至日閉關，商旅不行，後不省方。”《論語》曰：“沽之哉，我待賈者也。”即如是，《尚書》曰：“肇牽車牛，遠服賈用”？方言遠行可知也。方言欽厥父母，欲留供養之也。

What do shang (merchant) and gu (trader) mean? Shang means to weigh far and near, measure what is present and absent, and circulate goods from the four quarters, so it is called shang. Gu means to hold fast: one holds on to goods one already has, waits for the people to come, and seeks profit. One who travels is called shang, and one who stays in place is called gu. The Book of Changes says: "On the solstice the former kings closed the passes; merchants and travelers did not move, and the ruler did not tour the four quarters." The Analects says: "Sell it! I am waiting for a buyer." If so, what about the Book of Documents saying "he first took his carts and oxen and traveled far to trade"? Saying "far" shows that he traveled. Saying that he "respected his parents" means that he left something behind to support them.

王者始立，諸侯皆見何？當受法稟正教也。《尚書》：“輯五瑞，覲四嶽。”謂舜始即位，見四方諸侯，合符信。《詩》云：“玄王桓撥，受小國是達，受大國是達。”言湯王天下，大小國諸侯皆來見，湯能通達以禮義也。《周頌》曰：“烈文闢公，錫茲祉福。”言武王伐紂定天下，諸侯來會，聚於京師受法度也。遠近莫不至，受命之君天之所興，四方莫敢違，夷狄鹹率服故也。

Why, when a true king has just been established, do all the lords come to see him? They should receive the law and receive correct instruction. The Book of Documents says: "He gathered the five jade tokens and gave audience to the Four Peaks." This speaks of Shun, who, just after taking the throne, met the lords of the four quarters and matched the tallies. The Book of Songs says: "The Dark King was firm and brave; he received small states and reached them, he received great states and reached them." This says that when Tang became king of the world, lords of large and small states all came to see him, and Tang could reach them through ritual and righteousness. The Hymns of Zhou say: "Brilliant and splendid princes, you are given this blessing." This says that when King Wu attacked Zhou and pacified the world, the lords came to the assembly and gathered at the capital to receive the regulations. Of near and far, none failed to arrive, because the ruler who receives the mandate is raised up by Heaven, the four quarters dare not defy him, and the Yi and Di barbarians all follow.

何謂五瑞，謂、璧、琮、璜、璋也。《禮》曰：“天子尺有二寸。”又曰：“博三寸，剡上寸半，厚半寸。半為璋。方中圓外曰璧。半璧曰璜。圓中牙身玄外曰琮。《禮記王度》曰：“王者，有象君之德，燥不輕，溼不重，薄不澆，廉不傷，疵不掩，是以人君寶之。”天子之純玉尺有二寸。公侯九寸，四玉一石也。伯、子、男俱三玉二石也。

What are the five jade tokens? They are [a rare character lost in transcription], the bi, the cong, the huang and the zhang. The Rites say: "The Son of Heaven's [a rare character lost in transcription] is one foot two inches." It also says: "Three inches wide, cut away an inch and a half at the top, half an inch thick. Half of a [a rare character lost in transcription] is a zhang. One that is square within and round outside is a bi. Half a bi is a huang. One that is round within, with teeth, and dark outside is a cong." The Royal Regulations in the Record of Rites says: "Jade has qualities that resemble a ruler's virtue: when dry it is not light, when moist it is not heavy, thin yet not flimsy, with an edge yet not hurting people, and flaws that are not hidden; therefore rulers treasure it." The Son of Heaven's is pure jade, one foot two inches. Dukes and marquises have nine inches, four parts jade and one part stone. Earls, viscounts and barons all have three parts jade and two parts stone.

五玉者各何施？蓋以為璜以徵召，璧以聘問，璋以發兵，以信質，琮以起土功之事也。

What is each of the five jades used for? Probably the huang is used for summoning, the bi for formal visits, the zhang for sending out troops, the [a rare character lost in transcription] as a token of good faith, and the cong for starting earthwork projects.

以為信者何？者兌上，象物皆生，見於上也。信莫著於作見，故以為信，而見萬物之始，莫不自潔。之為言潔也，上兌陽也，下方陰也。陽尊，故其禮順備也。在位東方，陽見義於上也。

Why is the [a rare character lost in transcription] used as a token of good faith? The [a rare character lost in transcription] has a pointed top, resembling how all things grow and show themselves at the top. Nothing in good faith is more evident than showing itself, so the [a rare character lost in transcription] is used as the token of good faith, and in seeing the beginning of the myriad things, none fail to purify themselves. The meaning of [a rare character lost in transcription] is purity; the pointed top is yang, the square bottom is yin. Yang is honored, so the ritual is smooth and complete. Its position is in the east, where the righteousness of yang shows itself above.

璧以聘問何？璧者，方中圓外，象地，地道安寧而出財物，故以璧聘問也。方中，陰德方也。圓外，陰繫於陽也。陰德盛於內，故見象於內，位在中央。璧之為言積也，中央，故有天地之象，所以據用也。內方象地，外圓象天也。

Why is the bi used for formal visits? The bi is square within and round outside, resembling the earth; the way of the earth is peace, and it produces wealth, so the bi is used for formal visits. Square within means the virtue of yin is upright. Round outside means yin is tied to yang. The virtue of yin is abundant within, so its form appears within, and its position is in the center. Bi means accumulation; the center holds the images of Heaven and earth, which are held and used. The square within resembles the earth, and the round outside resembles Heaven.

璜所以徵召何？璜者，半璧，位在北方，北陰極而陽始起，故象半陰。陽氣始施，徵召萬物，故以徵召也。不象陰何？陽始物微，未可見。璜者，橫也，質尊之命也。陽氣橫於黃泉，故曰璜。璜之為言光也，陽光所及，莫不動也。象君之威命所加，莫敢不從，陽之所施，無不節也。

Why is the huang used for summoning? The huang is half a bi, and its position is in the north; in the north yin reaches its limit and yang begins to rise, so it resembles half of yin. Yang qi begins to act and summons the myriad things, so it is used for summoning. Why does it not resemble yin? When yang begins, things are still faint and cannot be seen. Huang means horizontal, the command of honored substance. Yang qi lies horizontal in the Yellow Springs, so it is called huang. Huang means light; wherever the light of yang reaches, nothing fails to move. It resembles how the ruler's majestic command, once applied, is obeyed by all without exception, and everything yang carries out is regulated.

璋以發兵何？璋半，位在南方，南方陽極而陰始起，兵亦陰也，故以發兵也。不象其陰何？陰始起物尚凝，未可象也。璋之為言明也，賞罰之道，使臣之禮，當章明也。南方之時，萬物莫不章，故謂之璋。

Why is the zhang used for sending out troops? The zhang is half of a [a rare character lost in transcription], and its position is in the south; in the south yang reaches its limit and yin begins to rise, and the army too is yin, so it is used for sending out troops. Why does it not resemble yin? When yin first rises, things are still congealed and cannot be given form. Zhang means bright; the way of reward and punishment and the ritual of dispatching ministers should be made clear. In the southern season, all things are made manifest, so it is called zhang.

琮以起土功發聚眾何？琮之為言聖也，象萬物之宗聚聖也，功之所成，故以起土功發眾也。位西方，西方陽收功於內，陰出城於外，內圓象陽，外直為陰，外牙而內湊，象聚會也，故謂之琮。後夫人之財也。

Why is the cong used to start earthworks and rouse a gathering of people? Cong means sage: it symbolizes the myriad things gathering around the sage, and the work accomplished is therefore used to start earthworks and rouse the multitude. Its position is in the west. In the west, yang gathers in its achievement within while yin completes the walls without. The inside is round like yang and the outside is straight like yin; it has teeth on the outside and fits together inside, symbolizing assembly, so it is called cong. It is the wealth of the queen consort.

五玉所施非一，不可勝條，略舉大者也。

The uses of the five jades are not limited to one kind and cannot all be listed one by one; only the main ones are mentioned in brief.

合符信者，謂天子執瑁以朝諸侯，諸侯執圭以覲天子。瑁之為言冒也，上有所覆，下有所冒。故《覲禮》曰：“侯氏執圭升堂。”《尚書大傳》：“天子執瑁以朝諸侯。”又曰：“諸侯執所受圭與璧朝於天子，無過者復得其以歸其拜，有過者留其圭，能正行者復還其。三年不復，少絀以爵。圭所以還何？以為琮信瑞也。璧所以留者，以財幣盡輒更造。何以言之？《禮》曰：“圭造尺八寸。”有造圭，門得造璧也。公圭九寸，四玉一石。何以知不以玉為四，器石持為也？以《尚書》合言五玉也。

Matching the tallies of trust means that the Son of Heaven holds the mao when receiving the lords at court, and the lords hold the gui when presenting themselves to the Son of Heaven. Mao means to cover: it covers what is above and is covered over what is below. So the Rites of Audience says: "The marquis holds the gui and ascends the hall." The Great Commentary on the Book of Documents says: "The Son of Heaven holds the mao when receiving the lords at court." It also says: "The lords hold the gui and the bi they were given when they court the Son of Heaven; those without fault receive [character lost in transcription] again and return to give thanks, while those with faults have their gui kept back, and those who can correct their conduct have the [character lost in transcription] returned. If after three years the [character lost in transcription] is not returned, their rank is gradually reduced. Why is the gui returned? It is taken that the cong is the token of trust. Why is the bi kept? Because when wealth and goods are used up they are made again. On what basis is this said? The Rites says: 'The gui is made one foot eight inches.' There is the making of the gui, and the door can make the bi. The duke's gui is nine inches; four are jade and one is stone. How do we know the fourth is not made of jade, with the stone vessel made separately? Because the Book of Documents speaks of the five jades together."

臣見君所以有贄何？贄者，質也，質己之誠，致己之悃幅也。王者緣臣子心以為之制，差其尊卑，以副其意也。公、侯以玉為贄者，玉取其燥不輕，溼不重，公之德全，輕以羔者，取其群不黨。卿職在盡忠率下，不阿黨也。大夫以雁為贄者，取其飛成行，列。大夫職在以奉命之適四方，動作當能自正以事君也。士以雉為贄者，取其不可誘之以食，懾之以威，必死不可生畜。士行威守節死義，不當移轉也。《曲禮》曰：“卿羔、大夫以雁、士以雉為贄，庶人之贄匹，童子委贄而退。野外軍中無贄，以纓、拾、矢可也。”言必有贄也。匹謂鶩也。

Why does a minister have a gift of introduction when he sees his ruler? A gift is substance: it makes one's sincerity substantial and expresses one's earnest heart. The king, following the ministers' hearts, set up the rules for them, distinguishing the honored from the humble to match their intentions. Dukes and marquis use jade as the gift, choosing jade because it is not light when dry nor heavy when wet, matching the completeness of a duke's virtue. Lesser officials use a lamb, taken because it keeps to the flock without forming cliques. A minister's duty is to give full loyalty and lead his subordinates, without partisanship. Grandees use a wild goose as the gift, taken because it flies in formation. A grandee's duty is to go to the four quarters on command, and his conduct should be able to correct himself in serving the ruler. Knights use a pheasant as the gift, taken because it cannot be lured with food or subdued by threat, and will die rather than be kept alive. A knight's conduct is to be stern and keep his integrity, dying for righteousness, and he should not be moved. The Record of Rites, Quli, says: "Ministers use a lamb, grandees a goose, and knights a pheasant as the gift; the gift of commoners is a duck, and a boy sets down his gift and withdraws. In the wilds and in the army there is no gift; a cap tassel, an archer's thumb-guard or an arrow will do." This means there must always be a gift. What is called pi is a duck.

卿、大夫贄，古以鹿今以羔、雁何？以為古者質，取其內，謂得美草鳴相呼；今文取其外，謂羔跪乳、雁有行列也。《禮?相見經》曰：“上大夫相見，以羔左顧右贄執。明古以鹿，今以羔也。卿、大夫贄變，君與士贄不變何？人君至尊，極美之物以為贄；士賤伏節死義，一介之道也，故不變。私相見亦有贄何？所以相尊敬，長和睦也。朋友之際，五常之道，有通財之義，振窮救急之意，中心好之，欲飲食之，故財幣者所以副至意也。《禮?士相見經》曰：“上大夫相見以雁。士冬以雉，夏以脯也。”

The gift of ministers and grandees used to be a deer fawn [character lost in transcription]; now it is a lamb or a goose. Why? It is held that the ancients were simple and took the inner quality: finding fine grass, they call to one another. Now there is refinement, and the outer quality is taken: a lamb kneels to suckle, and geese keep their ranks. The Rites, Classic of Mutual Audience, says: "When senior grandees meet, they use a lamb, glancing left and right, holding the gift [character lost in transcription]." This shows that in antiquity a fawn was used and now a lamb. The gift of ministers and grandees has changed, but that of rulers and knights has not. Why? The ruler is the most honored and uses the finest thing as his gift; a knight is lowly and holds to his integrity, dying for righteousness, which is the way of a single-minded man, so it does not change. Why is there a gift even when meeting privately? To respect one another and nurture harmony. Between friends are the Way of the five constants: there is the duty of sharing wealth and the intention of relieving want and rescuing in emergencies; the heart is fond, and one wishes to give food and drink, so goods and money are used to match that sincere intention. The Rites, Classic of Mutual Audience of Knights, says: "When senior grandees meet they use geese. Knights use a pheasant in winter and dried meat in summer."

婦人之制以棗栗暇修者，婦人無專制之義，御眾之任，交接辭讓之禮，職在供養饋食之間，其義一也。故後夫人以棗栗暇修者，凡內修陰也。又取其朝早起，栗戰忄栗自正也。暇修者，脯也。故《春秋傳》曰：“宗婦覿用幣，非禮也。然則棗栗云乎？暇修云乎？”

For women the rule is to use jujubes, chestnuts and duanxiu (spiced dried meat), because women have no duty to act on their own authority, no charge of commanding the multitude, and no rite of courtesies and declining at meetings; their duty lies in providing for and serving meals, and the principle is the same. So the queen and consorts use jujubes, chestnuts and duanxiu; whatever is prepared within is yin. It also takes the sense of rising early in the morning, and the chestnut suggests trembling and setting oneself upright. Duanxiu is dried meat. So the Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The senior wife of the clan presented herself with silk, which is not proper. Then what of jujubes and chestnuts? What of duanxiu?"

子見父無贄何？至親也，見無時，故無贄。臣之事君以義合也，得親供養，故質己之誠，副已之意，故有贄也。

Why does a son have no gift when he sees his father? He is the closest kin and they meet at no fixed time, so there is no gift. A minister serves his ruler through bonds of righteousness and can attend on him in person, so he makes his sincerity substantial and matches his intention, and therefore has a gift.

王者受命必改朔何？明易姓，示不相襲也。明受之於天，不受之於人，所以變易民心，革其耳目，以助化也。故《喪服大傳》曰：“王始起，改正朔、易服色、殊徽號、異器械、別衣服也。”是以禹舜雖繼太平，猶宜改以應天。王者改作樂，必得天應而後作何？重改制也。《春秋瑞應傳》曰：“敬受瑞應而王，改正朔，易服色。”《易》曰：“湯武革命，順乎天而應乎民”也。

Why must a king who receives the mandate change the calendar and first day of the year? To make plain that the surname has changed and show that he does not follow his predecessors. It makes plain that he received it from Heaven, not from men, so as to change the people's minds, renew their ears and eyes, and assist the work of teaching. So the Great Commentary on Mourning Dress says: "When a king has just arisen, he changes the calendar, alters the colors, distinguishes the emblems, differentiates the implements, and sets apart the clothing." Hence even Yu and Shun, though inheriting an age of great peace, still had to make changes to answer Heaven. When a king newly creates music, he must first receive a response from Heaven before creating it. Why? He values the change of institutions. The Spring and Autumn Auspicious Responses Commentary says: "Respectfully receiving the auspicious response, he called himself king, changed the calendar, and altered the colors." The Book of Changes says: "Tang and Wu changed the mandate, following Heaven and answering the people."

文家先改正、質家先改正，質家先伐何？改正者文，伐者質。文家先其文，質者先其質。《論語》曰：“予小子履，敢用玄牡，敢昭告於皇王后帝。”此湯伐桀告天以夏之牲也。《詩》云：“命此文王，於周於京。”此言文王改號為周，易邑為京也。又曰：“清酒既載，も牡既備。”言文王之牲周も。周尚赤也。

Why do the refined houses first change the calendar, while the plain houses first change the calendar and the plain ones first attack? Changing the calendar is refinement; attacking is plainness. The refined house leads with its refinement, and the plain one leads with its plainness. The Analects says: "I, the little child Lu, dare to use a black bull and dare to announce to the august sovereign above." This is Tang, when attacking Jie, reporting to Heaven with the sacrificial victim of the Xia. The Book of Songs says: "He charged this King Wen, in Zhou, in the capital." This means that King Wen changed the name to Zhou and the city to Jing. It also says: "The clear wine is already poured, the red bull is ready." This means King Wen's victim was the red bull of Zhou. Zhou honored red.

正朔有三何？本天有三統，謂三微之月也。明王者當奉順而成之，故受命各統一正也，敬始重本也。朔者，蘇也，革也，言萬物革更於是，故統焉。《禮三正記》曰：“正朔三而改，文質再而復也。”

Why are there three kinds of calendar beginnings? Originally Heaven has three lines of rule, which are the three months of subtle beginnings. This shows that a king should follow and complete them, so on receiving the mandate each unifies under one calendar, respecting the beginning and valuing the root. Shuo (the first day) means revival, and also means change: it means that at this time the myriad things change and renew, so the line of rule is based on it. The Record of the Three Calendars says: "The calendar beginning is changed three times; refinement and plainness each recur after two."

三微者，何謂也？陽氣始施，黃泉，萬物動微而未著也。十一月之時，陽氣始養根株，黃泉之下，萬物皆赤。赤者，盛陽之氣也，故周為天正，色尚赤也。十二月之時，萬物始牙而白。白者陰氣，故殷為地正，色尚白也。十三月之時，萬物始達，孚由而出，皆黑，人得加功，故夏為人正，色尚黑。《尚書大傳》曰：“夏以孟春月為正，殷以季冬月為正，周以仲冬月為正。夏以十三月為正，色尚黑，以平旦為朔。殷以十二月為正，色尚白，以雞鳴為朔。周以十一月為正，色尚赤，以夜半為朔。”不以二月後為正者，萬物不齊，莫適所統，故必以三微之月也。三正之相承，若順連環也。孔子承周之弊，行夏之陸，知繼十一月正者當用十三月也。

What is meant by the three subtle beginnings? Yang qi begins to move, in the Yellow Springs, and the myriad things stir but are still subtle and not yet manifest. In the eleventh month, yang qi begins to nourish the roots and stumps, below the Yellow Springs, and all things are red. Red is the qi of full yang, so the Zhou had the calendar of Heaven and honored the color red. In the twelfth month, the myriad things begin to sprout and are white. White is the qi of yin, so the Yin (Shang) had the calendar of Earth and honored the color white. In the thirteenth month, the myriad things begin to penetrate and emerge in their shells, all black, and people can work upon them, so the Xia had the calendar of Man and honored the color black. The Great Commentary on the Book of Documents says: "The Xia took the first month of spring as the beginning of the year, the Yin took the last month of winter, and the Zhou took the middle month of winter. The Xia took the thirteenth month as the beginning, honored black, and began the day at dawn. The Yin took the twelfth month, honored white, and began the day at cockcrow. The Zhou took the eleventh month, honored red, and began the day at midnight." The beginning is not placed after the second month because the myriad things are then not uniform and have nothing to follow, so the three months of subtle beginnings must be used. The three calendars follow one another like a linked chain. Confucius, succeeding the decline of the Zhou, put the Xia calendar into practice, knowing that what follows the calendar beginning in the eleventh month should use the thirteenth.

天道左旋，改正者右行何也？改正者，非改天道也，但改日月耳。日月右行，故改正亦右行也。

The Way of Heaven turns to the left, yet the change of calendar goes to the right. Why? Changing the calendar does not change the Way of Heaven; it changes only the sun and moon. The sun and moon travel to the right, so the change of calendar also goes to the right.

日尊於月，不言正日言正月何也？積日成月，物隨月而變，故據物為正也。

The sun is more honored than the moon, yet one speaks of correcting the month rather than the day. Why? Days accumulate into months, and things change with the months, so the beginning is set according to things.

天質地文，質者據質，文者據文，周反統天正何也？質文再而復，正朔三而改，三微、質文數不相配，故正不隨質文也。

Heaven is plain and Earth is refined; the plain follow the plain and the refined follow the refined; yet the Zhou, on the contrary, took the calendar of Heaven. Why? Plainness and refinement recur after two, while the calendar beginning changes after three; the three subtle beginnings do not match the number of plainness and refinement, so the calendar does not follow plainness and refinement.

王者受命而起，或有所不改者何也？王者有改道之文，無改道之質。如君南面，臣北面，皮弁素積，聲味不可變，哀慼不可改，百王不易之道也。

When a king receives the mandate and rises, some things are not changed. Why? A king changes the refinement of the Way but does not change its plain substance. For example, the ruler faces south and the minister faces north, the white-deerskin cap and plain skirt, sounds and flavors cannot be altered, and grief cannot be changed; these are the Way that a hundred kings have not changed.

王者所以存二王之後何也？所以尊先王，通天下之三統也。明天下非一家之有，謹敬謙讓之至也。故封之百里，使得服其正色，用其禮樂，永事先祖。《論語》曰：“夏禮吾能言之，杞不足徵也；殷禮吾能言之，宋不足徵也。”《春秋傳》曰：“王者存二王之後，使服其正色，行其禮樂。”《詩》曰：“厥作將，常服黼旱。”言微子服殷之冠，助祭於周也。《周頌》曰：“有客有客，亦白其馬。”此微子朝周也。二王之後若有聖德受命而王，當因其改之耶？天下之所安得受命耶，非其運次者。

Why does a king preserve the descendants of the two earlier dynasties? In order to honor the former kings and connect the three lines of rule under heaven. It shows that the world is not the possession of one house, and is the utmost of reverence and modesty. So he enfeoffs them with a hundred li, enabling them to wear their own proper colors, use their own rites and music, and serve their ancestors forever. The Analects says: "I can speak of the rites of the Xia, but Qi cannot supply the evidence; I can speak of the rites of the Yin, but Song cannot supply the evidence." The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "A king preserves the descendants of the two earlier dynasties, letting them wear their proper colors and practice their rites and music." The Book of Songs says: "In the libation they always wear the embroidered robe and the Yin cap." This means that the Viscount of Wei, wearing the cap of the Yin, assisted at the sacrifice in Zhou. The Odes of Zhou say: "There is a guest, there is a guest, and his horse too is white." This is the Viscount of Wei at the Zhou court. If a descendant of the two earlier dynasties had sage virtue and received the mandate and became king, should he change things by following them? Could the one whom the world finds at peace receive the mandate? It is not his turn in the sequence.

王者，必一質一文何？以承天地，順陰陽。陽之道極則陰道受，陰之道極則陽道受，明二陰二陽不能相繼也。質法天、文法地而已，故天為質，地受而化之，養而成之，故為文。《尚書大傳》曰：“王者一質一文，據天地之道。”《禮三正記》曰：“質法天，文法地也。”帝王始起，先質後文者，順天下之道、本末之義、先後之序也。事莫不先有質性，乃後有文章也。

Why must a king be alternately plain and refined? To carry on Heaven and Earth and follow yin and yang. When the Way of yang reaches its utmost, the Way of yin receives it; when the Way of yin reaches its utmost, the Way of yang receives it. This shows that two yins or two yangs cannot succeed one another. Plainness takes Heaven as its model and refinement takes Earth, that is all; so Heaven is plain, and Earth receives it, transforms it, nourishes it and brings it to completion, so it is refinement. The Great Commentary on the Book of Documents says: "A king is alternately plain and refined, according to the Way of Heaven and Earth." The Record of the Three Calendars says: "Plainness takes Heaven as its model; refinement takes Earth." When emperors and kings first arise, plainness comes first and refinement after, following the way of the world, the sense of root and branch, and the order of before and after. There is nothing that does not first have a plain nature and only then have outward form.

王者設三教何？承衰救弊，欲民反正道也。三王之有失，故立三教，以相指受。夏人之王教以忠，其失野，救野之失莫如敬。殷人之王教以敬，其失鬼，救鬼之失莫如文。周人之王教以文，其失薄，救薄之失莫如忠。繼周尚黑，制與夏同。三者如順連環，周而復始，窮則反本。

Why does a king establish three teachings? To take over from decline, rescue from abuses, and bring the people back to the right Way. Each of the three kings had his shortcoming, so the three teachings were set up to hand down to one another with mutual correction. The kings of the Xia taught with loyalty, and their shortcoming was rusticity; to cure rusticity nothing is better than reverence. The kings of the Yin taught with reverence, and their shortcoming was superstition about ghosts; to cure that nothing is better than refinement. The kings of the Zhou taught with refinement, and their shortcoming was thinness; to cure thinness nothing is better than loyalty. Following the Zhou, the honored color was black and the institutions were the same as the Xia. The three follow one another like a linked chain, ending and beginning again, and when exhausted they return to the root.

《樂稽耀嘉》曰：“顏回向三教變，虞夏何如？”曰：教者，所以追補敗政，靡弊溷濁，謂之治也。舜之承堯，無為易也。”或曰：三教改易，夏后氏始。高宗亦承弊，所以不改教何？明子無改父之道也。何以知高宗不改之？以周之教承以文也。三教所以先忠者，行之本也。三教一體而分，不可單行，故王者行之有先後。何以言三教並施、不可單行也？以忠、敬、文無可去者也。

The Music Records, Auspicious Brilliance, says: "Yan Hui asked about the change of the three teachings: what about Yu and Xia?" The answer: teaching is used to make up for failed government and for decadence and muddle, and this is called governing. Shun succeeded Yao and there was nothing to change. Some say the three teachings were changed starting from the House of Xia. Gaozong also inherited abuses, yet did not change the teaching. Why? To show that a son does not change his father's way. How do we know Gaozong did not change it? Because the Zhou teaching that followed used refinement. Why does the order of the three teachings begin with loyalty? It is the root of practice. The three teachings are one body divided and cannot be carried out singly, so kings put them into practice in a sequence. On what basis do we say the three teachings are applied together and cannot be carried out singly? Because none of loyalty, reverence or refinement can be dispensed with.

教所以三何？法天、地、人，內忠外敬，文飾之，故三而備也。即法天、地、人，各何施？忠法人，敬法地，文法天。人道主忠，人以至道教人，忠之至也；人以忠教，故忠為人教也。地道謙卑，天之所生，地敬養之，以敬為地教也。

Why are there three teachings? They take Heaven, Earth and Man as their models: inwardly loyalty, outwardly reverence, then adorned with refinement, and so three is complete. Since they take Heaven, Earth and Man as models, what is each applied to? Loyalty models Man, reverence models Earth, and refinement models Heaven. The Way of Man governs loyalty; man teaches man with the supreme Way, which is the utmost of loyalty; man teaches with loyalty, so loyalty is the teaching of Man. The Way of Earth is lowly and humble: what Heaven brings forth, Earth reverently nourishes, so reverence is taken as the teaching of Earth.

教者，何謂也？教者，效也。上為之，下效之，民有質樸，不教而成。故《孝經》曰：“先王見教之可以化民。”《論語》曰：“不教民戰，是謂棄之。”《尚書》曰：“以教祗德。”《詩》云：“爾之教矣，欲民斯效。”

What is meant by teaching (jiao)? Jiao is xiao, imitation: those above act and those below imitate. People have a plain nature and can be fulfilled even without teaching. So the Classic of Filial Piety says: "The former kings saw that teaching could transform the people." The Analects says: "To lead the people into war without teaching them is to throw them away." The Book of Documents says: "Teach them to respect virtue." The Book of Songs says: "Your teaching is what the people imitate."

忠形於悃誠，故失野；敬形於祭祀，故失鬼；文形於飾兒，故失薄。

Loyalty shows itself in sincerity, so its shortcoming is rusticity; reverence shows itself in sacrifice, so its shortcoming is superstition about ghosts; refinement shows itself in adorning one's demeanor, so its shortcoming is thinness.

夏后氏用明器，殷人用祭器，周人兼用之何？謂曰：夏后氏教以忠，故先明器，以奪孝子之心也。殷教以敬，故先祭器，敬之至也。周人教以文，故兼用之，周人意至文也。孔子曰：“之死而致死之，不仁而不可為也；之死而致生之，不知而不可為也。”故有死道焉，以奪孝子之心也；有生道焉，使人勿倍也。故竹器不成用，木器不成斫，瓦器不成沫，琴瑟張而不平，竽笙備而不和，有鐘磬而無иね縣，示備物而不可用也。孔子曰：“為明器者善，為俑者不仁。塗車羞靈，自古有之。言今古皆然也。”

The House of Xia used spirit vessels, the Yin used sacrificial vessels, and the Zhou used both. Why? The answer: the House of Xia taught with loyalty, so it first used spirit vessels, to take away the filial son's heart. The Yin taught with reverence, so it first used sacrificial vessels, which is the utmost of reverence. The Zhou taught with refinement, so it used both; the Zhou intention reached refinement. Confucius said: "To treat the dead as wholly dead is inhuman and must not be done; to treat the dead as wholly alive is unwise and must not be done." So there is the way of the dead, to take away the filial son's heart, and the way of the living, so that people do not turn away. So bamboo vessels are made but cannot be used, wooden vessels are made but not planed, earthenware is made but not polished, zithers and lutes are strung but not tuned, reed organs are complete but not harmonized, and there are bells and chime stones but no frames to hang them on, showing that the objects are prepared but cannot be used. Confucius said: "Those who make spirit vessels are good; those who make burial figures are inhuman. Clay carriages and straw figures have existed since antiquity. This means that it is so in both past and present."

三綱者何謂也？謂君臣、父子、夫婦也。六紀者，謂諸父、兄弟、族人、諸舅、師長、朋友也。故君為臣綱，夫為妻綱。又曰：“敬諸父兄，六紀道行，諸舅有義，族人有序，昆弟有親，師長有尊，朋友有舊。”何謂綱紀？綱者，張也；紀者，理也。大者為綱，小者為紀，所以張理上下，整齊人道也。人皆懷五常之性，有親愛之心，是以綱紀為化，若羅綱之有紀綱而萬目張也。《詩》云：“我王，綱紀四方。”

What are the three bonds? They are ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife. The six threads are paternal uncles, brothers, clansmen, maternal uncles, teachers and elders, and friends. So the ruler is the bond for the minister and the husband is the bond for the wife. It also says: "Respect paternal uncles and elder brothers, and the Way of the six threads is carried out: maternal uncles have righteousness, clansmen have order, brothers have affection, teachers and elders have honor, and friends have old ties." What are bonds and threads? Gang (the bond) means to stretch; ji (the thread) means to put in order. The large are bonds and the small are threads, used to stretch and order high and low and set human relations in line. All people carry in their hearts the nature of the five constants and have a loving heart, so bonds and threads are used to teach and transform them, like a net with its main cord and threads, so that its ten thousand meshes open out. The Book of Songs says: "[Character lost in transcription] [character lost in transcription] our king, who orders the four quarters with bonds and threads."

君臣，父子，夫婦，六人也，所以稱三綱何？一陰一陽謂之道。陽得陰而成，陰得陽而序，剛柔相配，故六人為三綱。

Ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife make six persons, yet they are called three bonds. Why? One yin and one yang is called the Way. Yang is completed by gaining yin, and yin is put in order by gaining yang; firm and soft are matched, so six persons make three bonds.

三綱法天、地、人，六紀法六合。君臣法天，取象日月屈信歸功天也。父子法地，取象五行轉相生也。夫婦法人，取象人合陰陽有施化端也。六紀者為三綱之紀者也。師長君臣之紀也，以其皆成己也；諸父兄弟父子之紀也，以其有親恩連也；諸舅朋友夫婦之紀也，以其皆有同志為紀助也。

The three bonds take Heaven, Earth and Man as their models, and the six threads take the six directions. Ruler and minister follow Heaven, taking the image of the sun and moon bending and stretching and giving credit for merit to Heaven. Father and son follow Earth, taking the image of the five phases turning and giving birth to one another. Husband and wife follow Man, taking the image of people uniting yin and yang and the beginnings of bestowing and transforming. The six threads are the threads of the three bonds. Teachers and elders are the threads of ruler and minister, because both help one accomplish oneself; paternal uncles and brothers are the threads of father and son, because they are linked by the kindness of kinship; maternal uncles and friends are the threads of husband and wife, because both have like-minded people to serve as helpers to the thread.

君臣者，何謂也？君，群也，下之所歸心；臣者，糹堅也，屬志自堅固。《春秋傳》曰：“君處此，臣請歸也。”

What is meant by ruler and minister? Jun (ruler) means qun (the group), the one to whom those below turn in their hearts; chen (minister) means [character lost in transcription] jian (firm), one whose will is strengthened. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The ruler stays here; may your minister take his leave and return."

父子者，何謂也？父者，矩也，以法度教子；子者，孳孳無已也。故《孝經》曰：“父有爭子，則身不陷於不義。”夫婦者，何謂也？夫者，扶也，以道扶接也；婦者，服也，以禮屈服。《昏禮》曰：“夫親脫婦之纓。”《傳》曰：“夫婦判合也。”朋友者，何謂也？朋者，黨也；友者，有也。《禮記》曰：“同門曰朋，同志曰友。”朋友之交，近則謗其言，遠則不相訕。一人有善，其心好之；一人有惡，其心痛之。貨則通而不計，共憂患而相救。生不屬，死不託。故《論語》曰：“子路云：‘願車馬衣輕裘，與朋友共敝之。’”又曰：“朋友無所歸，生於我乎，死於我乎殯。”朋友之道，親存不得行者二：不得許友以其身，不得專通財之恩。友飢則白之於父兄，父兄許之，乃稱父兄與之，不聽則止。故曰：友飢為之減餐，大寒為之不重裘。故《論語》曰：“有父兄在，如之何其聞斯行之也！”

What is meant by father and son? Fu (father) means ju (the carpenter's square), teaching the son by law and measure; zi (son) means ceaseless diligence. So the Classic of Filial Piety says: "A father who has a remonstrating son will not fall into unrighteousness." What is meant by husband and wife? Fu (husband) means fu (to support), supporting and receiving with the Way; fu (wife) means fu (to submit), submitting according to the rites. The Marriage Rites says: "The husband himself unties the wife's cap tassel." The Commentary says: "Husband and wife are two halves joined." What is meant by friends? Peng is a party; you is to have. The Record of Rites says: "Those of the same school are called peng, those of the same aim are called you." In the friendship of friends, when near they point out each other's faults of speech, and when far they do not slander each other. When one has a good quality, the other is glad at heart; when one has a fault, the other is pained. Goods and wealth flow between them without counting, and they rescue each other in shared hardship. In life they do not leave requests, and in death they do not leave entrustments. So the Analects says: "Zilu said: 'I would share my carriage, horses and light fur coat with friends and be content to wear them out together.'" It also says: "When a friend has no one to turn to, I say: while he lives he is my charge, and when he dies I will bury him." In the way of friendship, there are two things one may not do while one's parents are alive: one may not pledge one's own person to a friend, and one may not act on one's own authority in the kindness of sharing wealth. When a friend is hungry, one tells one's father and elder brothers; if they permit, one says they give it to him, and if they do not listen, one stops. So it is said: when a friend is hungry, one reduces one's own meals for him, and in great cold one does not wear a double fur coat because of it. So the Analects says: "With a father and elder brothers alive, how can one hear a thing and immediately put it into practice!"

男稱兄弟，女稱姊妹何？男女異姓，故別其稱也。何以言之？《禮親屬記》曰：“男子先生稱兄，後生稱弟；女子先生為姊，後生為妹。”父之昆弟不俱謂之世叔，父之女昆弟俱謂之姑，何也？以為諸父曰內，親也，故別稱之也；姑當外適人，疏，故總言之也。至姊妹亦當外適人，所以別諸姊妹何？以為事諸姑禮等，可以外出又同，故稱略也；至姊妹雖欲有略之，姊尊妹卑，其禮異也。《詩》云：“問我諸姑，遂及伯姊。”謂之舅姑者何？舅者，舊也；姑者，故也。舊、故之者，老人之稱也。謂之姊妹何？姊者，諮也；妹者，末也。謂之兄弟何？兄者，況也；況父法也；弟者，悌也，心順行篤也。稱夫之父母謂之舅姑何？尊如父而非父者，舅也；親如母而非母者，姑也。故稱夫之父母為舅姑也。

Men say xiongdi (brothers), women say zimei (sisters). Why? Men and women have different surnames in this sense, so they are called by different names. On what basis is this said? The Record of Kinship in the Rites says: "A man born earlier is called elder brother and born later younger brother; a woman born earlier is elder sister and born later younger sister." The father's brothers are not all called shishu (uncle), yet the father's sisters are all called gu (aunt). Why? It is held that the paternal uncles are spoken of as inner, as kin, so they are called by distinct names; an aunt marries out and is more distant, so they are spoken of collectively. As for sisters, who also marry out, why are they distinguished as elder and younger? It is held that the rites of serving the aunts are equal and their going out is the same, so the terms are simple; but for sisters, even if one wished to be simple, the elder sister is honored and the younger lowly, and the rites differ. The Book of Songs says: "I ask after my aunts, and then my elder sister." Why are they called jiugu (husband's parents)? Jiu is jiu (old); gu is gu (former). Old and former are terms for the aged. Why are sisters called zimei? Zi is zi (to consult); mei is mo (last). Why are brothers called xiongdi? Xiong is kuang (to compare), comparing with the father's model; di is ti (brotherly respect), with a compliant heart and steady conduct. Why is a husband's parents called jiugu? The one honored like a father but not the father is the jiu; the one close like a mother but not the mother is the gu. So the husband's parents are called jiugu.

性情者，何謂也？性者，陽之施；情者，陰之化也。人稟陰陽氣而生，故內懷五性六情。情者，靜也，性者，生也，此人所稟六氣以生者也。故《鉤命決》曰：“情生於陰，欲以時念也；性生於陽，以就理也。陽氣者仁，陰氣者貪，故情有利慾，性有仁也。”

What is meant by nature and feelings? Nature is the bestowal of yang; feelings are the transformation of yin. People are born receiving the qi of yin and yang, so they inwardly hold the five natures and the six feelings. Feelings are stillness and nature is life; these are what people receive of the six qi to live. So the Gouming jue says: "Feelings are born of yin, and desire thinks of things at their season; nature is born of yang, and is used to approach principle. Yang qi is benevolence and yin qi is greed, so feelings have desire for gain and nature has benevolence."

五性者何？謂仁、義、禮、智、信也。仁者，不忍也，施生愛人也；義者，宜也，斷決得中也；禮者，履也，履道成文也；智者，知也，獨見前聞，不惑於事，見微者也；信者，誠也，專一不移也。故人生而應八卦之體，得五氣以為常，仁、義、禮、智、信是也。六情者，何謂也？喜、怒、哀、樂、愛、惡謂六情，所以扶成五性。性所以五，情所以六者何？人本含六律五行氣而生，故內有五藏六府，此情性之所由出入也。《樂動聲儀》曰：“官有六府，人有五藏。”

What are the five natures? They are benevolence, righteousness, ritual propriety, wisdom and good faith. Benevolence is being unable to bear harm, giving life and loving people; righteousness is what is fitting, deciding rightly and hitting the mean; ritual is to tread, treading the Way and bringing it to cultured form; wisdom is knowing, foreseeing alone and hearing ahead, not being confused by affairs and being able to see the subtle; good faith is sincerity, being single-minded and unmoving. So a person, when born, corresponds to the body of the eight trigrams and receives the five qi as constants, which are benevolence, righteousness, ritual, wisdom and good faith. What are the six emotions? Joy, anger, sorrow, pleasure, love and hatred are called the six emotions, and they help to complete the five natures. Why are the natures five and the emotions six? A person is born containing the qi of the six pitch-pipes and the five phases, so within there are five viscera and six receptacles, which are the paths by which emotions and nature come and go. The Music Moving the Sound Ritual says: "The office has six receptacles, and man has five viscera."

五藏者何也？謂肝、心、肺、腎、脾也。肝之為言幹也；肺之為言費也，情動得序；心之為言任也，任於恩也；腎之為言寫也，以竅寫也；脾之為言辨也，所以積精稟氣也。五藏，肝仁，肺義，心禮，腎智，脾信也。

What are the five viscera? They are the liver, heart, lungs, kidneys and spleen. The liver means trunk; the lungs mean expense, where the emotions are stirred and set in order; the heart means to take responsibility, taking responsibility for kindness; the kidneys mean to drain, draining through the orifices; the spleen means to discern, gathering essence and receiving qi. Among the five viscera: the liver is benevolence, the lungs righteousness, the heart ritual, the kidneys wisdom, and the spleen good faith.

肝所以仁者何？肝，木之精也；仁者，好生。東方者陽也，萬物始生，故肝象木，色青而有枝葉。目為之候何？目能出淚而不能內物，木亦能出枝葉不能有所內也。

Why is the liver benevolence? The liver is the essence of wood; benevolence is loving life. The east is yang, where the myriad things begin to grow, so the liver resembles wood, green in color with branches and leaves. Why are the eyes its indicator? The eyes can let tears flow out but cannot take things in, and wood too can grow branches and leaves but cannot take anything in.

肺所以義者何？肺者，金之精；義者，斷決。西方亦金，成萬物也，故肺象金，色白也。鼻為之候何？鼻出入氣，高而有竅，山亦有金石累積，亦有孔穴，出雲布雨以潤天下，雨則雲消，鼻能出納氣也。

Why are the lungs righteousness? The lungs are the essence of metal; righteousness is deciding. The west is also metal and completes the myriad things, so the lungs resemble metal and are white. Why is the nose their indicator? The nose lets breath in and out, is high and has openings; mountains too have metal and stone piled up and have hollows, and put out clouds and spread rain to moisten the world, and when the rain stops the clouds disperse; the nose can put out and take in breath.

心所以為禮何？心，火之精也。南方尊陽在上，卑陰在下，禮有尊卑，故心象火，色赤而銳也，人有道尊，天本在上，故心下銳也。耳為之候何？耳能遍內外、別音語，火照有似於禮，上下分明。

Why is the heart ritual? The heart is the essence of fire. In the south, the honored yang is above and the humble yin is below, and ritual has the high and the low, so the heart resembles fire, red and pointed; a person has the Way of honor, and Heaven is originally above, so the heart is pointed downward. Why are the ears its indicator? The ears reach inside and outside and distinguish sounds and speech; the light of fire resembles ritual, with high and low clearly divided.

腎所以智何？腎者，水之精。智者，進而止無所疑惑。水亦進而不惑，北方水，故腎色黑；水陰，故腎雙。竅為之候何？竅能瀉水，亦能流濡。

Why are the kidneys wisdom? The kidneys are the essence of water. Wisdom is to advance and then stop, without doubt. Water too advances without confusion. The north is water, so the kidneys are black; water is yin, so the kidneys come as a pair. Why are the orifices their indicator? The orifices can drain water, and can also flow and moisten.

脾所以信何？脾者，土之精也。土尚任養萬物為之象，生物無所私，信之至也。故脾象土，色黃也。口為之候何？口能啖嘗，舌能知味，亦能出音聲，吐滋液。

Why is the spleen good faith? The spleen is the essence of earth. Earth values bearing and nourishing the myriad things as its image, and gives life to things without selfishness, which is the height of good faith. So the spleen resembles earth and is yellow. Why is the mouth its indicator? The mouth can taste, the tongue can know flavors, and it can also make sounds and put out moisture.

故《元命苞》曰：“目者肝之使，肝者木之精，蒼龍之位也。鼻者肺之使，肺者金之精，制割立斷。耳者心之候，心者火之精，上為張星。陰者腎之寫，腎者水之精，上為虛危。口者脾之門戶，脾者土之精，上為北斗，主變化者也。”或曰：口者心之候，耳者腎之候。或曰：肝繫於目，肺繫於鼻，心繫於口，脾繫於舌，腎繫於耳。

Hence the Sprouting of Fate says: "The eye is the envoy of the liver; the liver is the essence of wood, the position of the Azure Dragon. The nose is the envoy of the lungs; the lungs are the essence of metal, cutting and deciding at once. The ear is the indicator of the heart; the heart is the essence of fire, above it is the Zhang star. The genitals are the drain of the kidneys; the kidneys are the essence of water, above them are Xu and Wei. The mouth is the gate of the spleen; the spleen is the essence of earth, above it is the Northern Dipper, which governs change." Some say: the mouth is the indicator of the heart, and the ear is the indicator of the kidneys. Some say: the liver is tied to the eyes, the lungs to the nose, the heart to the mouth, the spleen to the tongue, and the kidneys to the ears.

六府者，何謂也？謂大腸、小腸、胃、膀胱、三焦、膽也。府者，謂五藏宮府也。故《禮運》記曰：“六情所以扶成五性也。”

What are the six receptacles? They are the large intestine, small intestine, stomach, bladder, triple burner and gallbladder. A receptacle means the palace of the five viscera. Hence the Record of Ritual Operations says: "The six emotions help to complete the five natures."

胃者，脾之府也，脾主稟氣；胃者，谷之委也，故脾稟氣也。

The stomach is the receptacle of the spleen. The spleen governs receiving qi; the stomach is where grain is stored and accumulated, so the spleen receives qi.

膀胱者，腎之府也。腎者，主瀉，膀胱常能有熱，故先決難也。

The bladder is the receptacle of the kidneys. The kidneys govern draining, and the bladder can always hold heat, so it first decides what is difficult.

三焦者，包絡府也。水谷之道路，氣之所終始也。故上焦若竅，中焦若編，下焦若瀆。

The triple burner is the receptacle of the pericardium. It is the road of water and grain and the beginning and end of qi. So the upper burner is like an orifice, the middle burner is like a braid, and the lower burner is like a ditch.

膽者，肝之府也。肝者，木之精也，主仁。仁者不忍，故以膽斷也，是以肝膽二者必有勇也。肝膽異趣，何以知相為府也？肝者，木之精也，木之為言牧也，人怒無不色青目腋張者，是其效也。

The gallbladder is the receptacle of the liver. The liver is the essence of wood and governs benevolence. The benevolent cannot bear harm, so the gallbladder is used to decide, and therefore those with a liver and gallbladder must have courage. The liver and gallbladder lie in different directions; how do we know they are each other's receptacles? The liver is the essence of wood, and the word for wood means to herd; when a person is angry, his face invariably turns green and his eyes open wide, and this is the proof.

小腸、大腸，心肺之府也，主禮義，禮義者有分理，腸之大小相承受也。腸為心肺主，心為皮體主，故為兩府也。目為心視，口為心談，耳為心聽，鼻為心嗅，是其支體主也。

The small and large intestines are the receptacles of the heart and lungs and govern ritual and righteousness. Ritual and righteousness have divisions and order, and the large and small intestines receive from each other. The intestines serve the heart and lungs as master, and the heart is the master of the limbs, so there are two receptacles. The eyes see for the heart, the mouth speaks for the heart, the ears hear for the heart, and the nose smells for the heart; these are the masters of the limbs.

喜在西方，怒在東方，好在北方，惡在南方，哀在下，樂在上何？以西方萬物之成，故喜；東方萬物之生，故怒；北方陽氣始施，故好；南方陰氣始起，故惡；上多樂，下多哀也。

Joy is in the west, anger in the east, liking in the north, hatred in the south, sorrow below, and pleasure above. Why? In the west the myriad things are completed, so there is joy; in the east the myriad things grow, so there is anger; in the north yang qi begins to act, so there is liking; in the south yin qi begins to rise, so there is hatred; above there is much pleasure, and below there is much sorrow.

魂魄者，何謂也？魂猶亻雲亻雲也，行不休於外也。主於情。魄者，迫然著人主於性也。魂者，芸也，情以除穢；魄者，白也，性以治內。

What is the meaning of hun and po? The hun is like clouds, moving outside without stopping. It governs the emotions. The po is attached to a person as if pressed against him, and governs the nature. The hun is "to weed," using emotion to remove filth; the po is "white," using nature to govern within.

精神者，何謂也？精者，靜也，太陰施化之氣也。象火之化，任生也，神者恍惚，太陰之氣也，間松雲支體，萬化之本也。

What is the meaning of essence and spirit? Essence means stillness, the qi through which the great yin bestows transformation. It resembles the transformation of fire and takes charge of birth. Spirit is hazy and indistinct; it is the qi of the great yin, scattering through clouds of qi and the limbs, and is the root of the ten thousand transformations.

命者，何謂也？人之壽也，天命己使生者也。命有三科以記驗：有壽命以保度，有遭命以遇暴，有隨命以應行。習壽命者，上命也，若言文王受命唯中身，享國五十年。隨命者，隨行為命，若言怠棄三正，天用剿絕其命矣。又欲使民務仁立義，無滔天。滔天則司命舉過，言則用以弊之。遭命者逢世殘賊，若上逢亂君，下必災變暴至，夭絕人命，沙鹿崩於受邑是也。

What is the meaning of fate? It is a person's lifespan, which Heaven's mandate has already given him in life. Fate has three categories by which it is tested: there is the longevity fate, by which life is kept within bounds; there is the encounter fate, by which one meets cruelty; and there is the following fate, by which one responds to one's conduct. One who practices the longevity fate has the highest fate, as with King Wen, who received the mandate only in his middle years and held the state for fifty years. The following fate follows conduct and becomes fate, as with the one who neglected the three correct norms, so that Heaven cut off his fate. Also, people should be made to devote themselves to benevolence and establish righteousness, and not be arrogant toward Heaven. If arrogant toward Heaven, the Director of Fate will lift up his faults, and his words will be used to ruin him. The encounter fate is meeting an age of cruelty above: for example, when there is a disordered ruler above, then below disasters and violent changes must arrive, cutting short human life; the collapse of Shalu at the city where it received its fief is an example.

冉伯牛危言正行而遭惡疾，孔子曰：“命矣夫！斯人也而有斯疾也！夫子過鄭與弟子相失獨立郭門外，或謂子貢曰：東門有一人，其頭似堯，其頸似皋繇，其肩似子產，然自腰以下不及禹三寸，儡儡如喪家之狗，子貢以告孔子，孔子喟然而笑，曰：“形狀未也，如喪家之狗。然哉乎，然哉乎。””

Ran Boniu spoke upright words and acted correctly, yet met with a foul disease, and Confucius said: "It is fate! That such a man should have such a disease!" When the Master passed through Zheng, he was separated from his disciples and stood alone outside the outer wall. Someone said to Zigong: At the east gate there is a man whose head is like Yao's, whose neck is like Gao Yao's, whose shoulders are like Zichan's, but from the waist down he falls short of Yu by three inches, and he looks forlorn like a dog that has lost its home. Zigong told Confucius, and Confucius sighed and laughed, and said: "The description of his form is not complete, but 'like a dog that has lost its home'. Just so, just so."

宗者，何謂也？宗尊也，為先祖主也，宗人之所尊也。《禮》曰：“宗人將有事，族人皆侍。”聖者所以必有宗何也？所以長和睦也。大宗能率小宗；小宗能率群弟，通於有無，所以紀理族人者也。宗其為始祖後者為大宗，此百世之所宗也。宗其為高祖後者，五世而遷者也，高祖遷於上，宗則易於下。”宗其為曾祖後者為曾祖宗，宗其為祖後者為祖宗，宗其為父後者為父宗。以上至高祖皆為小宗，以其轉遷，別於大宗也。別子者，自為其子孫為祖，繼別也，各自為宗。小宗有四，大宗有一，凡有五。宗人之親，所以備矣。諸侯奪宗，明尊者宜之。大夫不得奪宗何？曰：諸侯世世傳子孫，故奪宗；大夫不傳子孫，故不宗也。《喪服經》曰：“大夫為宗子。”不言諸侯為宗子也。

What is the meaning of zong (lineage)? Zong means honored, being the master of the ancestors, whom the lineage members honor. The Rites say: "When the lineage head is about to hold a ceremony, all the clan members attend." Why must the sages have a lineage? To nurture and sustain harmony. The great lineage can lead the lesser lineages; a lesser lineage can lead the brothers, sharing what is present and absent, so as to regulate the clan. The lineage of the descendants of the first ancestor is the great lineage, which is revered for a hundred generations. A lineage of the descendants of the great-great-grandfather moves after five generations: the great-great-grandfather moves up and the lineage below changes accordingly. A lineage of the descendants of the great-grandfather is the great-grandfather lineage, a lineage of the descendants of the grandfather is the grandfather lineage, and a lineage of the descendants of the father is the father lineage. Those from the father up to the great-great-grandfather are all lesser lineages, because they move on in turn and are different from the great lineage. A branch son becomes the ancestor of his own descendants, and the one who continues the branch founds his own lineage. There are four lesser lineages and one great lineage, five in all. The kinship of the lineage members is thereby complete. A lord may override the lineage, showing that the honored one is fitting. Why can a grand master not override the lineage? It is said: lords pass down to their descendants generation after generation, so they override the lineage; grand masters do not pass down to descendants, so they have no lineage. The Classic of Mourning Garments says: "A grand master mourns for the lineage head." It does not say a lord mourns for the lineage head.

族者何也？族者，湊也，聚也，謂恩愛相流湊也。生相親愛，死相哀痛，有會聚之道，故謂之族。《尚書》曰：“以親九族。”

What is a clan? Clan means to converge and to gather, meaning that affection flows together. In life they love one another, in death they mourn one another, and there is a way of gathering, so it is called a clan. The Book of Documents says: "He made the nine clans close."

族所以九何？九之為言究也，親疏恩愛究竟也，謂父族四，母族三，妻族二。父族四者，謂父之姓一族也，父女昆弟適人有子為二族也，身女昆弟適人有子為三族也，身女子適人有子為四族也；母族三者，母之父母一族也，母之昆弟二族也，母昆弟子三族也；母昆弟者男女皆在外親，故合言之。妻族二者，妻之父為一族，妻之母為二族，妻之親略故父母各一族。《禮》曰：“惟氏三族之不虞。”《尚書》曰：“以親九族，義同也。”一說合言九族者，欲明堯時俱三也，禮所以獨父族四何？欲言周承二弊之後，民人皆厚於末，故興禮母族，妻之黨廢，禮母族父之族，足以貶妻族，以附父族也。或言九者，據有交接之恩也。若“邢侯之姊，覃公惟私”也。言四者，據有服耳，不相害所異也。

Why are there nine clans? Nine means the utmost; affection between near and distant reaches its utmost. It means four on the father's side, three on the mother's side and two on the wife's side. The four on the father's side: those of the father's surname are one clan; the father's sisters who marry and have sons are the second clan; one's own sisters who marry and have sons are the third clan; one's own daughters who marry and have sons are the fourth clan. The three on the mother's side: the mother's parents are one clan; the mother's brothers are the second clan; the sons of the mother's brothers are the third clan; the mother's brothers, male and female alike, are outside kin, so they are spoken of together. The two on the wife's side: the wife's father is one clan and the wife's mother is the second clan; the wife's kinship is brief, so father and mother are one clan each. The Rites say: "Only the three clans of the surname are unforeseen." The Book of Documents says: "He made the nine clans close." The meaning is the same. One view is that nine clans are spoken of together, to show that in Yao's time all were three. Why do the Rites have only four on the father's side? It is said that Zhou inherited after two kinds of abuses, when people were all generous toward the minor side, so it raised the rite for the mother's side, while the wife's party was neglected; the rite for the mother's side and the father's side was enough to lower the wife's side and attach it to the father's side. Some say nine, going by those with whom there are bonds of connection, as in "the sister of the Marquis of Xing, the private affair of the Duke of Tan." Saying four goes only by those with mourning obligations, and the two do not hinder what differs.

人所以有姓者何？所以崇恩愛、厚親親、遠禽獸、別婚姻也。故世別類，使生相愛，死相哀，同姓不得相娶，皆為重人倫也。姓生也，人所稟天氣所以生者也。《詩》云：“天生民。”《尚書》曰：“平章百姓。”姓所以有百者何？以為古者聖人吹律定姓，以紀其族。人含五常而生，聲有五音，宮、商、角、徵、羽，轉而相雜，五五二十五，轉生四時，故百而異也。氣殊音悉備，故殊百也。

Why do people have surnames? To honor affection, treat kin generously, keep distance from birds and beasts, and distinguish marriages. So generations are distinguished by kind, so that the living love one another and mourn one another in death, and those of the same surname may not marry; all this values human relations. Xing (surname) means birth; it is the Heavenly qi a person receives by which he is born. The Book of Songs says: "Heaven gave birth to the [a rare character lost in transcription] people." The Book of Documents says: "He made the hundred surnames clear and orderly." Why are there a hundred surnames? It is held that in ancient times the sages blew the pitch-pipes to fix surnames and so regulate the clans. A person is born containing the five constants, and sound has five tones, gong, shang, jue, zhi and yu, which mix in turn; five times five is twenty-five, and they turn through the four seasons, so there are a hundred, all different. The qi differs, and the tones are all complete, so they are distinct to the number of a hundred.

所以有氏者何？所以貴功德，賤伎力。或氏其官，或氏其事。聞其氏即可知，其所以勉人為善也。或氏王父字何？所以別諸侯之後，為興滅國、繼絕世也。諸侯之子稱公子，公子之子稱公孫，公孫之子各以其王父字為氏。故魯有仲孫、季，楚有昭、屈原，齊有高國、崔立氏三，以知其為子孫也。王者之後二稱王子，兄弟立而皆封也。或曰王孫上稱王孫也。堯知命，表稷、契，賜生子、姓，皋陶典刑不表姓，言天任德遠刑。”禹姓姒氏，祖以億生。殷姓子氏，祖以玄鳥子也。周姓姬氏，祖以履大人跡生也。

Why are there clan names (shi)? To honor merit and virtue and despise mere skill and strength. Some take an office as their clan name, some take an affair. On hearing the clan name one can know, and this is used to encourage people to do good. Why do some take the style name of their grandfather as the clan name? To distinguish the descendants of the lords, in order to revive extinguished states and continue broken lines. The son of a lord is called a lord's son, the son of a lord's son is called a lord's grandson, and the sons of a lord's grandson each take the style name of their grandfather as the clan name. So Lu has Zhongsun and Ji, Chu has Zhao and Qu Yuan, and Qi has Gao, Guo and Cui; three kinds of clan names are established so as to know they are descendants. Among the descendants of kings there are two kinds called king's son, when brothers are installed and all enfeoffed. Some say that king's grandson is a title used above. Yao knew the mandate, honored Ji and Xie, and bestowed surnames on them; Gao Yao governed punishments and was not honored with a surname, which means Heaven uses virtue and keeps away from punishment. Yu's surname was Si, and his ancestor was born of a job's tears seed. The Yin surname was Zi, and its ancestor was born of the dark bird. The Zhou surname was Ji, and its ancestor was born from stepping in the footprint of a giant.

人必有名何？所以吐情自紀，尊事人者也。《論語》曰：“名不正，則言不順。”

Why must a person have a name? To express feeling, to regulate oneself, and to serve others with honor. The Analects says: "If names are not correct, speech does not follow."

三月名之何？天道一時，物有變，人生三月，目煦亦能笑，與人相更答，故因其始有知而名之。故《禮服傳》曰：“子生三月，則父名之於祖廟。”於祖廟者，謂子之親廟也，明當為宗廟主也。

Why is a child given a name at three months? The Way of Heaven changes with each season and things transform; when a person is three months old, his eyes are warm and he can smile and respond to people, so he is named when he begins to know. Hence the Mourning Commentary in the Rites says: "When a child is born three months, the father, if living, names him in the ancestral temple." The ancestral temple here means the child's own parent's temple, which shows that he should be the master of the ancestral temple.

一說名之於燕寢。名者，幼小卑賤之稱也，寡略，故於燕寢。《禮?內則》曰：“子生，君沐浴朝服，夫人亦如之。立於阼階西南，世婦抱子，升自西階，君命之士。嫡子執其右手，庶子撫其首。君曰‘欽有帥’，夫人曰‘記有成’。告於四境。”四境者，所以遏絕萌芽，禁備未然。故《曾子問》曰：“世子生，三月以名，告於祖禰。”《內則》記曰：“以名告于山川、社稷、四境，天子太子使士負子於南郊。”

One view is that the naming takes place in the private chamber. A name is a humble and lowly term, simple, so it is done in the private chamber. The Domestic Rules in the Rites says: "When a child is born, the ruler bathes and puts on court dress, and the lady does likewise. He stands at the southwest of the eastern steps, the lesser wife carries the child, ascends by the western steps, and the ruler gives an order to the scholar. The heir son holds his right hand, and a concubine's son has his head stroked. The ruler says, 'May you reverently follow the lead,' and the lady says, 'May you be recorded as accomplished.' It is announced to the four borders." The four borders are announced to cut off sprouts of trouble and guard against what has not yet happened. Hence the Zengzi Asks says: "When an heir is born, at three months he is announced to the ancestors and the late father by name." The Domestic Rules records: "He is announced by name to the mountains and rivers, the altars of soil and grain, and the four borders; the Son of Heaven's crown prince has a scholar carry the child on his back to the southern suburb."

以桑弧蓬矢六射者何也？此男子之事也，故先表其事，然後食其祿。必桑弧何？桑者，相逢接之道也。《保傅》曰：“天子生，舉之以禮，使士負之者何，齊肅端綏，之郊見於天。”《韓詩內傳》曰：“太子生，以桑弧蓬矢六，射上下四方。”明當有事天地四方也。

Why is a mulberry bow shot with six arrows of fleabane? This is the business of a man, so one first marks that business and then he receives his salary. Why must a mulberry bow be used? Mulberry stands for the way of meeting and joining. The Guardian and Tutor says: "When the Son of Heaven is born, he is lifted up according to ritual and a scholar carries him on his back. Why? Solemn and upright with sash tied, he goes to the suburb to be seen by Heaven." The Inner Commentary on the Han Odes says: "When the crown prince is born, a mulberry bow and six fleabane arrows are used to shoot up, down and the four directions." This shows that he should serve Heaven, earth and the four directions.

殷以生日名子何？殷家質，故直以生日名子也。以《尚書》道殷家太甲、帝武丁也。於臣民亦得以生日名子何？亦不止也，以《尚書》道殷臣有巫咸，有祖己也。何以知諸侯不象王者以生日名子也？以太王名甫、王季名歷，此殷之諸侯也。《易》曰“帝乙”，謂成湯。帝乙謂六代孫也。

The Yin named their sons by the birth day. Why? The Yin were plain, so they directly named sons by the day of birth. The Book of Documents praises Taijia and Emperor Wuding of the Yin. Why could their subjects also name their sons by birth day? It was not forbidden, because the Book of Documents praises the Yin ministers Wu Xian and Zu Ji. How do we know that the lords did not imitate the kings in naming sons by birth day? Because Taiwang was named [a rare character lost in transcription] fu, and Wang Ji was named Li; these were lords of Yin. The Book of Changes says "Emperor Yi," and speaks of Cheng Tang. Emperor Yi refers to a descendant six generations on.

湯生於夏世，何以用甲乙為名？曰：湯王后乃更變名，子孫法耳。本名履，故《論語》曰：“予小子履。”履，湯名也。

Tang was born in the Xia age; why was he named with jia or yi? It is said: Tang changed his name only after becoming king, as a rule for his descendants. His original name was Lu, so the Analects says: "I, the small child Lu." Lu was Tang's name.

不以子丑何？曰：甲乙者，幹也；子丑者，枝也。幹為本，本質，故以甲乙為名也。

Why are zi and chou not used? It is said: jia and yi are stems; zi and chou are branches. The stem is the root, the substance, so jia and yi are used for names.

名或兼或單何？示非一也。或聽其聲，以律定其名；或依事、旁其形。故名或兼或單也。依其事者，若后稷是也。棄之，因名為棄也。旁其形者，孔子首類國尼丘山，故名為丘。

Why are some names of two characters and some of one? To show that they are not of one kind. Some are named by listening to the sound and fixing the name by the pitch-pipes; some by an event, or by leaning on his form. So names are sometimes double and sometimes single. One based on an event is like Houji: he was abandoned, and so was named Qi ("abandoned"). One based on form is like Confucius: his head resembled Mount Niqiu, so he was named Qiu.

或旁其名為之字者，聞名即知其字，聞字即知其名，若名賜字，子貢名鯉，字伯魚。

Some make the style name by leaning on the name, so that on hearing the name one knows the style name, and on hearing the style name one knows the name, as with Si (style name Zigong) and Li (style name Boyu).

《春秋》譏二名何？所以譏者乃謂其無常者也，若乍為名，祿甫元言武庚名。

The Spring and Autumn Annals criticizes two-character names. Why? What it criticizes is those that lack regularity, such as suddenly making a name; Lufu was originally called Wu Geng by name.

不以日月山川為名者，少賤卑己之稱也，臣子當諱為物示通故避之也。

The sun, moon, mountains and rivers are not used for names, because those are humble terms of self-abasement, and subjects should avoid taboo names, so as to let things communicate; therefore they are avoided.

《禮》曰：“二名不偏諱，逮事父母則諱王父母，不逮父母則不諱王父母也。君前不諱諱，詩書不諱，臨文不諱，郊廟中不諱。”又曰：“君前臣名，父前子名”謂大夫名卿、弟名兄也。明不敢諱於尊者之前也。太古之時，所不諱者何？尚質也，故臣子不言其君父之名。故《禮記》曰：“朝日上值，不諱，正天名也。”

The Rites say: "A two-character name is not tabooed in part. If one has served one's parents, one avoids the names of the deceased grandparents; if one did not catch up with one's parents, one does not avoid the names of the grandparents. In the ruler's presence there is no avoidance, nor in the Odes and Documents, nor when facing a text, nor in the suburban sacrifice or the temple." It also says: "Before the ruler a subject says his own name, and before a father a son says his own name." This means that a grand master uses the name of a minister, and a younger brother uses the name of an elder brother. It shows that one dares not avoid names in front of the honored. Why was there no avoidance in the earliest times? They valued plainness, so subjects did not call their lord's or father's name. Hence the Record of Rites says: "When the court faces the sun, it is not avoided; this is to correct Heaven's name."

人所以十月而生者何？人，天子之也，經天地之數五，故十月而備，乃成人也。

Why is a person born after ten months? A person is the child of Heaven, and passes through the Heavenly and earthly number five, so after ten months he is complete and becomes a person.

人生所以位何？本一干而分，得氣異息，故泣，重離母之義也。《尚書》曰：“啟呱呱而泣也。”

Why does a person cry when born? He was originally one trunk and has been divided; the qi he receives and his breathing are different, so he cries, which values the righteousness of leaving the mother. The Book of Documents says: "Qi wailed and cried."

人拜所以自名何？所以立號自紀禮拜。自後不自名何？備陰陽也。

Why does a person give his own name when bowing? To establish his title and regulate himself in worship. Why does he stop giving his own name after that? To complete yin and yang.

人所以相拜者何？所以表情見意屈節卑體，尊事人者也，拜之言服也。

Why do people bow to each other? To express feeling and show intention, bending the joints and lowering the body to serve others with honor. Bai (to bow) means to submit.

所以必再拜何？法陰陽也。《尚書》曰：“再拜稽首也。”必稽首何？敬之至也。頭至地何？以言首謂頭也，《禮》曰：“首有瘍則沐。”

Why must one bow twice? Taking the model of yin and yang. The Book of Documents says: "Bowing twice, he touched his head to the ground." Why must one touch the head to the ground? It is the utmost respect. Why must the head reach the ground? Because shou means the head, and the Rites say: "If the head has a sore, wash it."

所以先拜首後稽首何？名順其文質也。《尚書》曰：“周公拜首稽首。”

Why does one first bow with hands joined and then touch the head to the ground? The names follow the order of form and substance. The Book of Documents says: "The Duke of Zhou bowed with hands joined and touched his head to the ground."

人所以有字何？冠德明功，敬成人也。故《禮?士冠經》曰：“賓北面，字之曰伯某甫。”又曰：“冠而字之。”敬其名也。所以五十乃稱伯仲者，五十知天命、思慮定也，能順四時長幼之序，故以伯仲號之。《禮?檀弓》曰：“幼名，冠字，五十乃稱伯仲。”《論語》曰：“五十而知天命。”

Why do people have style names? To crown virtue and make merit clear, and to respect a grown man. So the Capping Ceremony of the Scholar in the Rites says: "The guest faces north and gives him a style name, called Bo-so-and-so fu." It also says: "He is capped and given a style name," which shows respect for his name. So only at fifty is one called by Bo or Zhong, because at fifty one knows Heaven's mandate and one's thoughts are settled, and one can follow the order of the four seasons and of old and young, so Bo and Zhong are used as titles. The Tangong chapter of the Rites says: "In childhood, a name; at capping, a style name; at fifty, Bo or Zhong." The Analects says: "At fifty I knew Heaven's mandate."

稱號所以有四何？法四時用事先後，長幼兄弟之象也，故以時長幼號曰伯、仲、叔、季也。伯者，長也，伯者子最長，迫近父也。仲者，中也。叔者，少也。季者，幼也。適長稱伯，伯禽是也。庶長稱孟，以魯大夫孟氏。

Why are there four kinds of titles? They follow the sequence in which the four seasons carry out their work, which is the image of old and young and elder and younger brothers, so according to the season and seniority the titles are Bo, Zhong, Shu and Ji. Bo means eldest, the eldest son, close to the father. Zhong means middle. Shu means younger. Ji means youngest. A principal-wife eldest son is called Bo, as with Boqin. A concubine's eldest son is called Meng, as with the Meng clan, grand masters of Lu.

男女異長，各自有伯仲，法陰陽各自有終始也。《春秋傳》曰：“伯姬者何？內女稱也。”婦人十五稱伯仲何？婦人值，少變。陰陽道促，蚤成。十五通乎織糹任之事，思慮定，故許嫁笄而字。故《禮經》曰：“女子十五許嫁，笄。禮之稱字之。“婦姓以配字何？明不娶同姓也，故《春秋》曰：“伯姬歸於宋。”姬者，姓也。

Men and women are distinguished and ranked separately, each having Bo and Zhong, modeled on yin and yang each having their own end and beginning. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "What is Bo Ji? It is a title for a woman of the inner household." Why are women called Bo or Zhong at fifteen? Women are plain and straightforward and change little. The way of yin and yang is hurried, and they mature early. At fifteen she understands weaving, her thoughts are settled, so she is promised in marriage, wears the hairpin, and receives her style name. So the Ritual Classic says: "A girl of fifteen is promised in marriage and wears the hairpin. The ritual names her by her style name." Why is a woman's surname used with the style name? To show that one does not marry within the same surname, so the Spring and Autumn Annals says: "Bo Ji returned to Song." Ji is the surname.

值字所以於仲春何？值者親，故近於仲；文子尊尊，故於伯仲之時物尚值，叔之時物失之章，即如是，周有八士。《論語》曰：“伯達，伯適，仲突，仲忽，叔夜，叔夏，季隨，季”，積於叔何？蓋以兩兩俱生故也。不積於伯，季，明其無二也。

Why is the plain style name placed in mid-spring? Plainness is closeness, so it is near Zhong; the cultured child honors the honored, so in the time of Bo and Zhong things are still plain and straight, and in the time of Shu things lose their luster. If so, Zhou had eight scholars. The Analects says: "Boda, Bokuo, Zhongtu, Zhonghu, Shuye, Shuxia, Jisui, Ji [a rare character lost in transcription]." Why are they grouped under Shu? Probably because they were born two at a time. They are not grouped under Bo or Ji, which shows there were not two of those.

文王十子，《詩傳》曰：“伯邑考，武王發，周公旦，管叔鮮，蔡叔鐸，成叔處，霍叔武，康叔封，南季載。”載所以或上其叔何也？管、蔡、霍、成、康、南，皆採也，故上置叔上。伯邑叔震也，以獨無乎？蓋以為大夫者，不是采地也。

King Wen had ten sons. The Commentary on the Odes lists them: "Bo Yikao, King Wu (Fa), Duke of Zhou (Dan), Guan Shu Xian, Cai Shu Du, Cheng Shu Chu, Huo Shu Wu, Kang Shu Feng, and Nan Ji Zai." Why is "Shu" sometimes placed first in the name, as in Shu Zai? Guan, Cai, Huo, Cheng, Kang and Nan were all fiefs, so Shu is placed before the name. Is Bo Yi the same as Shu Zhen, and why is he alone lacking a fief? Probably because he served as a grand master, which was not a fief.

天者何也？天之為言鎮也，居高理下，為人鎮也。地者，易也。言養萬物懷任，交易變化也。

What is Heaven? Heaven means "to press down": dwelling on high and governing what lies below, it presses down upon humankind. Earth means "to change": it nurtures the myriad things, carries them in its womb, and exchanges and transforms them.

始起之天，始起先有太初，後有太始，形兆既成，名曰太素。混沌相連，視之不見，聽之不聞，然後剖判清濁。既分，精出曜布，度物施生。精者為三光，號者為五行。行生情，情生汁中，汁中生神明，神明生道德，道德生文章。故《乾鑿度》云：“太初者，氣之始也。太始者，形兆之始也；太素者，質之始也。陽唱陰和，男行婦隨也。”

When Heaven first arose, there was at the beginning the Great Beginning, then the Great Origin; once the first signs of form were complete, it was called the Great Plainness. All was chaotic and joined together, unseen when looked at and unheard when listened to. Only then were the clear and the turbid divided. After the division, the essence came forth, shone and spread, measured things and bestowed life. Its essences are the Three Luminaries, and what is named are the Five Phases. The Phases gave birth to feeling, feeling gave birth to its fluid center, the fluid center gave birth to spirit-intelligence, spirit-intelligence gave birth to the Way and virtue, and the Way and virtue gave birth to patterned culture. Hence the Qian Zaodu says: "The Great Beginning is the start of qi. The Great Origin is the start of form. The Great Plainness is the start of substance. Yang sings and yin answers; the man leads and the wife follows."

天道所以左旋、地道右周何？以為天地動而不別，行而不離。所以左旋、右周者，猶君臣、陰陽相對之義。

Why does the Way of Heaven turn to the left while the Way of Earth circles to the right? It is because Heaven and Earth move without separating and travel without parting. Hence one turns left and the other circles right, just as ruler and minister, yin and yang, correspond to each other in righteousness.

男女總名為人，天地所以無總名何？曰：天圓地方，不相類，故無總名也。

Man and woman together are called "people"; why do Heaven and Earth have no common name? It is said: Heaven is round and Earth is square; they are unlike one another, so they have no common name.

君舒臣疾，卑者宜勞，天所以反常行何？以為陽不動，無以行其教；陰不靜，無以成其化。雖終日干乾，亦不離其處也。故《易》曰：“終日干乾，反覆道也。”

The ruler is leisurely and the minister hurried; the lowly ought to toil. Why, then, does Heaven instead keep constantly moving? Because if yang did not move, it would have no way to carry out its teaching, and if yin did not rest, it would have no way to complete its transformation. Even though it is vigorous all day long, it never leaves its place. Hence the Changes says: "All day long vigorous, returning and repeating the Way."

天左旋，日、月、五星右行何？日、月、五星比天為陰，故右行。右行者，猶臣對君也。《含文嘉》曰：“計日月，右行也。”《刑德放》曰：“日月東行。”

Heaven turns left while the sun, moon and five planets travel to the right. Why? The sun, moon and five planets are yin compared with Heaven, so they travel to the right. Their rightward travel is like a minister toward his ruler. The Han Wenjia says: "In calculating the sun and moon, they go right." The Xingde Fang says: "The sun and moon go east."

而日行遲，月行疾何？君舒臣勞也。日日行一度，月日行十三度十九分度之七。《感精符》曰：“三綱之義，日為君，月為臣也。”日月所以懸晝夜者何？助天行化，照明下地。故《易》曰：“懸象著明，莫大乎日月。”

Yet the sun moves slowly and the moon moves quickly. Why? The ruler is leisurely and the minister toils. The sun travels one degree a day, and the moon thirteen degrees and seven nineteenths. The Ganjing Fu says: "In the meaning of the Three Bonds, the sun is the ruler and the moon the minister." Why are the sun and moon hung in the day and night? To help Heaven carry out its teaching and to illuminate the earth below. Hence the Changes says: "Of hanging images that shine brightly, none is greater than the sun and moon."

日之為言實也，常滿有節。月之為言闕也，有滿有闕也。所以有缺何？歸功於日也。八日成光，二八十六日轉而歸功，晦至朔旦，受符復行。故《援神契》曰：“月三日成魄也。”所以名之為星何？星者，精也，據日節言也。一日一夜適行一度，一日夜為一日，剩復分天為三十六度，周天三百六十五度四分度之一。日月徑千里也。

The sun means "full": it is always full and has its measure. The moon means "lacking": it has fullness and lack. Why does it wane? Because the achievement is credited to the sun. In eight days it completes its light; in sixteen days it turns and returns the credit; from the last day to the new moon it receives the sign and sets out again. Hence the Yuanshen Qi says: "On the third day the moon forms its dark body." Why are the stars called stars? Stars are essences, and are spoken of according to the sun's measure. In one day and night it travels exactly one degree, one day and night counting as one day, and Heaven is further divided into three hundred sixty-five and a quarter degrees. The diameter of the sun and moon is a thousand li.

所以必有晝夜何？備陰陽也。日照晝，月照夜。日所以有長短何？陰陽更相用事也，故夏節晝長，冬節夜長。夏日宿在東井，出寅入戌；冬日宿在牽牛，出辰入申。

Why must there be day and night? To complete yin and yang: the sun lights the day and the moon lights the night. Why does the sun have longer and shorter days? Yin and yang take turns at work, so in the summer season the days are long and in the winter season the nights are long. In summer the sun lodges at Dongjing, rising from Yin and setting at Xu; in winter the sun lodges at Qianniu, rising from Chen and setting at Shen.

月小大何？天道左旋，日月東行。日日行一度，月日行十三度，月及日為一月，至二十九日未及七度，即三十日者過行七度。日不可分，故月乍大小，明有陰陽也。故《春秋》曰：“九月庚戌朔，日有食之。”“十月庚辰朔，日有食之。”此三十日也。又曰：“七月甲子朔，日有食之。”“八月癸已朔日有食之。”此二十九日也。

Why are some months short and some long? The Way of Heaven turns left while the sun and moon travel east. The sun moves one degree a day and the moon thirteen degrees a day; the moon catches up with the sun in one month. By the twenty-ninth day it is still seven degrees short, and by the thirtieth it has gone seven degrees beyond. The sun cannot be divided, so the moon suddenly becomes small and suddenly large, showing that there is yin and yang. Hence the Spring and Autumn Annals says: "In the ninth month, on the first day, gengxu, there was an eclipse of the sun." "In the tenth month, on the first day, gengchen, there was an eclipse of the sun." These fall on the thirtieth day. It also says: "In the seventh month, on the first day, jiazi, there was an eclipse of the sun." "In the eighth month, on the first day, guisi, there was an eclipse of the sun." These fall on the twenty-ninth day.

月有閏餘何？周天三百六十五日度四分度之一，歲十二月，日過十二度，故三年一閏，五年再閏，明陰不足，陽有餘也，故《讖》曰：“閏者陽之餘。”

Why are there intercalary months? The celestial circuit is three hundred sixty-five and a quarter days; in a year of twelve months the sun exceeds the moon by twelve degrees, so there is an intercalary month every three years and two in five years. It shows that yin is deficient and yang is in surplus. Hence the apocrypha says: "The intercalary month is the surplus of yang."

所以名為歲何？歲者，遂也。三百六十六日一周天，萬物畢死，故為一歲也。《尚書》曰：“期三百有六旬有六日，以閏月定四時，成歲。”

Why is it called a "year"? A year means "to complete". In three hundred sixty-six days it makes one circuit of Heaven, and the myriad things all die, so this is one year. The Book of Documents says: "A year has three hundred and sixty-six days; use the intercalary month to fix the four seasons and complete the year."

春夏秋冬。時者，期也，陰陽消息之期也。四時天異名何？天尊各據其盛者為名也。春秋物變盛，冬夏氣變盛。春曰蒼天，夏曰昊天，秋曰天，冬曰上天。《爾雅》曰：“一說春為蒼天等是也。”四時不隨正朔變何？以為四時據物為名，春當生，冬當終，皆以正為時也。

Spring, summer, autumn and winter. A season means a "period": the period of the waxing and waning of yin and yang. Heaven has different names in the four seasons; why? Heaven is honored, and each season is named for what is most flourishing in it. In spring and autumn, things change most; in winter and summer, the qi changes most. Spring is called Cangtian (Azure Heaven), summer Haotian (Vast Heaven), autumn [a rare character lost in transcription of the base text] Heaven, and winter Shangtian (Upper Heaven). The Erya says: "One account says spring is Azure Heaven," and so on. The four seasons do not shift with the calendar's first month; why? Because the four seasons are named by their things: spring should give birth and winter should end, and all take the proper month as the season.

或言歲，或言載，或言年何？言歲者，以紀氣物，帝王共之，據曰為歲。《春秋》曰：“元年正月。”“十有二月朔。”有朔有晦，知據月斷為言年。載之言成也，載成萬物，終始言之也。二帝言載，三王言年，皆謂窺窬。故《尚書》曰：“三載四海遏密八音。”謂二帝也。又曰：“諒陰三年。”謂三王也。《春秋傳》曰：“三年之喪，其實二十五月。”知闕。

Some say sui, some say zai, some say nian; why? Sui is used to record the principles of qi and things; emperors and kings use it alike, and it is based on the sun. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "First year, first month." "The twelfth month, the first day." There are new moons and last days, and since one knows to judge by the moon, it is called nian. Zai means "to complete": it carries and completes the myriad things, speaking from end to beginning. The Two Emperors said zai and the Three Kings said nian, both speaking of a peering through. Hence the Book of Documents says: "For three zai the four seas were hushed and the eight kinds of music silenced," which refers to the Two Emperors. It also says: "Three years of mourning in silence," which refers to the Three Kings. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The three-year mourning is in fact twenty-five months." From this one knows there is a shortfall.

日言夜，月言晦，月言朔，日言朝何？朔之言蘇也，明消更生，故言朔。日晝見夜藏，有朝夕，故言朝也。

Why do we say "night" for the sun, "last day" for the moon, "new moon" for the moon, and "morning" for the sun? Shuo (new moon) means "to revive": the light fades and is born again, hence it is called shuo. The sun appears in the daytime and is hidden at night, and has a morning and an evening, hence it is called zhao (morning).

聖人所以製衣服何？以為■蔽形，表德勸善，別尊卑也。所以名為衣裳何？衣者，隱也；裳者，障也。所以隱形自障閉也。《易》曰：“黃帝堯舜垂衣裳而天下治。”何以知上為衣下為裳？以其先言衣也。《詩》曰：“褰裳涉溱。”所以合為衣也。《弟子職》言“摳衣而降也。”名為衣何？上兼下也。

Why did the sages establish clothing? They held that [a rare character lost in transcription of the base text] [a damaged character in the base text] cover the body, honor virtue, encourage goodness, and distinguish the honored from the lowly. Why are they called yi and chang (upper and lower garments)? Yi means "to conceal" and chang means "to screen": they conceal the body and shield it. The Changes says: "The Yellow Emperor, Yao and Shun let their upper and lower garments hang, and the world was ordered." How do we know the upper is yi and the lower is chang? Because yi is mentioned first. The Book of Odes says: "Lifting the chang to wade the Zhen." So together they are yi. The Dizi Zhi says: "Holding up the yi, he descends." Why is it called yi? Because the upper covers the lower as well.

獨以羔裘何？取輕暖。因狐死首丘，明君子不忘本也。羔者取跪乳遜順也。故天子狐白，諸侯狐黃，大夫狐蒼，士羔裘，亦因別尊卑也。

Why is the lambskin robe used alone? It is chosen because it is light and warm. Also, a fox dies with its head toward its hill, showing that the gentleman does not forget his roots, and the lamb kneels to suckle, showing humility and obedience. Hence the Son of Heaven wears white fox, the lords yellow fox, the grand masters grey fox, and the officers lambskin, which also serves to distinguish the honored from the lowly.

所以必有紳帶者，示謹敬自約整。繢繒為結於前，下垂三分，身半，紳居二焉。必有ひ帶者，示有事也。

There must be a sash because it shows reverence and the self restrained and ordered. A band of patterned silk is knotted in front and hangs down three parts; of the half-length of the body, the sash takes two parts. There must be a knee-covering band, which shows that one has duties to do.

所以必有佩者，《論語》曰：“去喪，無所不佩。”天子佩白玉，諸侯佩山玄玉，大夫佩水蒼玉，士佩需珉石。佩即象其事。若農夫佩其耒耜，工匠佩其斧斤，婦人佩其釒鹹鏤，何以知婦人亦佩玉？《詩》云：“將翱將翔，佩玉將將。彼美孟姜，德音不忘。”

There must be girdle ornaments. The Analects says: "Once mourning is over, there is nothing one does not wear." The Son of Heaven wears white jade, the lords dark jade of the mountains, the grand masters blue jade of the waters, and the officers [a rare character lost in transcription of the base text] stone. The ornament symbolizes one's work, just as a farmer carries his plow, an artisan his axe, and a woman her needle and thread. How do we know women also wear jade? The Book of Odes says: "As she roams and as she soars, her girdle jades chime. That beautiful Meng Jiang, her fair name is not forgotten."

聖人治天下，必有刑罰何？所以佐德助治，順天之度也。故懸爵賞者，示有勸也；設刑罰者，明有所懼也。刑所以五何？法五行也。科條三千者，應天地人情也。五刑之屬三千，大辟之屬二百，宮闢之屬三百，腓闢之屬五百，劓、墨闢之屬各千。張布羅眾，非五刑不見。劓、墨何，其下刑者也。腓者其臏。宮者，女子淫，執置宮中，不得出也；丈夫淫，割去其勢也。大辟者，謂死也。

Why must a sage governing the world have punishments? To support virtue, aid government, and follow Heaven's measure. Therefore ranks and rewards are displayed to show encouragement, and punishments are established to show there is something to fear. Why are there five punishments? They are modeled on the Five Phases. The three thousand articles correspond to the feelings of Heaven, Earth and humankind. The five punishments comprise three thousand offenses: two hundred for the capital punishment, three hundred for castration, five hundred for cutting off the feet, and a thousand each for cutting off the nose and tattooing. Spread out and set forth among the multitude, without the five punishments they could not be seen. Nose-cutting and tattooing are the lower punishments. Fei is binbin, the cutting of the kneecaps. As for castration: when a woman is licentious she is seized and confined in the palace and cannot go out, and when a man is licentious his genitals are cut off. The great punishment means death.

刑不上大夫何？尊大夫。禮不下庶人，欲勉民使至於士。故禮為有知制，刑為無知設也。庶人雖有千金衣幣，不得服。刑不上大夫者，據禮無大夫刑。或曰：撻笞之刑也。禮不及庶人者，謂酬酢之禮也。

Why are punishments not applied to grand masters? To honor the grand masters. Ritual does not descend to commoners, so that one may encourage the people to reach the rank of officer. Hence ritual is made for those who know, and punishment is set up for those who do not. Even if a commoner has a thousand pieces of gold in clothing and cloth, he may not wear it. That punishments do not reach grand masters means that ritual has no punishment for grand masters. Some say it means the punishment of beating with sticks. That ritual does not reach commoners refers to the ritual of toasts and exchanges.

孔子所以定《五經》者何？以為孔子居周之末世，王道陵遲，禮樂廢壞，強陵弱，眾暴寡，天子不敢誅，方伯不敢伐。閔道德之不行，故周流應聘，冀行其聖德。自衛反魯，自知不用，故追定《五經》以行其道。故孔子曰：“《書》曰：“孝乎，惟孝，友于兄弟，施於有政。是以為政也。”孔子未定《五經》如何？周衰道失，綱散紀亂，五教廢壞，故五常之經鹹失其所，象《易》失理，則陰陽萬物失其性而乖。設法謗之言，並作《書》三千篇，作《詩》三百篇，而歌謠怨誹也。

Why did Confucius edit the Five Classics? Because he lived at the end of the Zhou, when the kingly Way had declined, ritual and music were ruined, the strong bullied the weak and the many oppressed the few, the Son of Heaven did not dare to punish and the regional lords did not dare to attack. He grieved that the Way and virtue could not be put into practice, so he traveled around answering invitations, hoping to carry out his sagely virtue. Returning from Wei to Lu, he knew he would not be used, and so he retraced and fixed the Five Classics to carry out his Way. Hence Confucius said: "The Book of Documents says: 'Filial, indeed filial, and friendly to one's brothers; extend this to government.' This is government." What was it like before Confucius fixed the Five Classics? The Zhou had declined and the Way was lost, the guiding threads were scattered and the order was in chaos, the five teachings were ruined, and so the constant rules of the five constants all lost their place, as when the Changes loses its principle, and yin, yang and the myriad things lose their nature and go astray. Slanderous words were set up, and together he made the three thousand chapters of the Documents and the three hundred Odes, while folk songs voiced resentment and criticism.

已作《春秋》，後作《孝經》何？欲專制正。於《孝經》何？夫孝者，自天子下至庶人，上下通《孝經》者。夫製作禮樂，仁之本，聖人道德已備，弟子所以復記《論語》何？見夫子遭事異變，出之號令，失法。

After having made the Spring and Autumn Annals, why did he afterwards make the Classic of Filial Piety? Because he wished to decide matters by his own authority and to correct them. What of the Classic of Filial Piety? Filial piety runs from the Son of Heaven down to the commoner, and the Classic of Filial Piety connects high and low. To make ritual and music is the root of humaneness. The sage's Way and virtue were already complete, so why did his disciples again record the Analects? Because they saw the Master meet with changes of events, issue commands, and yet lose the model.

文王所以演《易》何？文王受王不率仁義之道，失為人法矣，己之調和陰陽尚微，故演《易》，使我得卒，至於太平。日月之光明則如《易》矣。

Why did King Wen expand the Changes? King Wen received the kingly undertaking, and there were some who did not follow the way of humaneness and righteousness and lost the model of being human, while his own harmonizing of yin and yang was still slight. So he expanded the Changes, so that I could complete it and reach great peace. The brightness of the sun and moon is just like the Changes.

伏羲作八卦何？伏羲始王天下，未有前聖法度，故仰則觀象於天，俯則察法於地，觀鳥獸之文與地之宜。近取諸物，於是始作八卦，以通神明之德，以象萬物之情也。

Why did Fuxi make the eight trigrams? Fuxi had just begun to rule as king over the world and had as yet no model from earlier sages. So looking up he observed the images in Heaven, and looking down he examined the patterns on Earth, watching the markings of birds and beasts and what suits the ground. Taking things from near at hand, he then began to make the eight trigrams, to penetrate the virtue of the spirit-intelligence and to take the images of the myriad things' conditions.

經所以有五何？經，常也。有五常之道，故曰《五經》：《樂》仁、《書》義、《禮》禮、《易》智、《詩》信也。人情有五性，懷五常，不能自成，是以聖人象天五常之道而明之，以教人成其德也。

Why are there five Classics? A classic means "constant". There is the Way of the five constants, hence they are called the Five Classics: Music is humaneness, Documents is righteousness, Rites is propriety, Changes is wisdom, and Odes is trustworthiness. Human nature has five natures and carries the five constants, yet cannot complete them by itself. Therefore the sages took the images of Heaven's Way of the five constants and made them clear, to teach people to complete their virtue.

《五經》何謂？謂《易》、《尚書》、《詩》、《禮》、《春秋》也？《禮?解》曰：“溫柔寬厚，《詩》教也；疏通知遠，《書》教也；廣博易良，《樂》教也；潔靜精微，《易》教也；恭儉莊敬，《禮》教也；屬詞比事，《春秋》教也。”

What are the Five Classics? Do they mean the Changes, the Book of Documents, the Odes, the Rites and the Spring and Autumn Annals? The Explanation in the Record of Rites says: "Gentle, kind and generous: that is the teaching of the Odes. Broad-minded and knowing what is distant: that is the teaching of the Documents. Wide-ranging, easy and good: that is the teaching of Music. Pure, calm and subtle: that is the teaching of the Changes. Respectful, frugal, solemn and reverent: that is the teaching of the Rites. Joining phrases and comparing events: that is the teaching of the Spring and Autumn Annals."

《春秋》何常也？則黃帝已來何以言之？《易》曰：“上古結繩以治，後世聖人易之以書契，百官以理，萬民以察。”後世聖人者謂五常也。《傳》曰：“三王百世計神元書，五帝之受錄圖，世史記從政錄帝魁已來，除禮樂之書三千二百四十篇也。”

What does the Spring and Autumn Annals take as its constant? On what basis is it said to go back to the Yellow Emperor? The Changes says: "In high antiquity they governed with knotted cords; later sages replaced these with written tallies, by which the officials governed and the myriad people examined matters." The later sages refer to the Five Emperors. The Commentary says: "The Three Kings, over a hundred generations, reckoned the books of the spirit origin; the Five Emperors received the charts and registers; the historians recorded affairs of government, recording from Emperor Kui onward, setting aside the books of ritual and music, three thousand two hundred forty chapters."

人道所以有嫁娶何？以為情性之大，莫若男女。男女之交，人情之始，莫若夫婦。《易》曰：“天地氤氳，萬物化淳。男女稱精，萬物化生。”人承天地施陰陽，故設嫁娶之禮者，重人倫、廣繼嗣也。《禮?保傅》記曰：“謹為子嫁娶，必擇世有仁義者。”

Why does the human Way have marriage? It is held that nothing in human feeling and nature is greater than the relation between man and woman, and the meeting of man and woman is the beginning of human feeling, and nothing is more important than husband and wife. The Changes says: "Heaven and Earth mingle, and the myriad things are transformed and enriched. Male and female join their essences, and the myriad things are transformed and born." Humans receive from Heaven and Earth and carry out yin and yang, so the rites of marriage were established to value human relations and extend the continuation of descent. The Record of the Tutors in the Record of Rites says: "Be careful in arranging the marriages of your sons and daughters, and certainly choose families that have been humane and righteous for generations."

禮男娶女嫁何？陰卑不得自專，就陽而成之，故《傳》曰：“陽倡陰和，男行女隨。”

By ritual the man takes a wife and the woman is married out; why? Yin is lowly and cannot decide for itself, but depends on yang to be completed, so the Commentary says: "Yang leads and yin follows; the man goes ahead and the woman follows."

男不自專娶，女不自專嫁，必由父母，須媒妁何？遠恥防淫佚也。《詩》云：“娶妻如之何？必告父母。”又曰：“娶妻如之何？匪媒不得。”

A man does not take a wife on his own authority, nor a woman marry on her own; it must go through the parents and requires a go-between. Why? To keep far from shame and prevent licentiousness. The Book of Odes says: "How does one take a wife? One must inform one's parents." It also says: "How does one take a wife? Without a go-between it cannot be done."

男三十而娶，女二十而嫁，陽數奇，陰數偶。男長女幼者，陽舒，陰促。男三十，筋骨堅強，任為人父；女二十，肌膚充盛，任為人母。合為五十，應大衍之數，生萬物也。故《禮?內則》曰：“男五十壯有室，女二十壯而嫁。”

A man marries at thirty and a woman at twenty; the number of yang is odd and that of yin is even. The man is older and the woman younger because yang is slow and yin is quick. At thirty a man's sinews and bones are strong and he can bear being a father; at twenty a woman's flesh is full and she can bear being a mother. Together they make fifty, corresponding to the Great Expansion number that gives birth to the myriad things. Hence the Domestic Rules in the Record of Rites says: "A man at thirty is in his prime and takes a household; a woman at twenty is in her prime and marries."

七歲之陽也，八歲陰也，七八十五陰陽之數備，有相偶之志。故《禮記》曰：“女子十五許嫁，笄而字。”禮之稱字，陰繫於陽，所以專一之節也。陽尊無所繫，二十五系者，就陰節也。陽舒而陰促。三十數三終，奇，陽節也。二十數再終，偶，陰節也。陽小成於陰，大成於陽，故二十而冠，三十而娶。陰小成於陽，大成於陰，故十五而笄，二十而嫁也。

Seven is yang and eight is yin; seven times eight makes fifteen, when the numbers of yin and yang are complete and there is a will to be matched. Hence the Record of Rites says: "A girl at fifteen is promised in marriage, puts up her hair with a pin, and is given a style name." By ritual she is called by her style name, and yin is tied to yang, which is the measure of single-mindedness. Yang is honored and tied to nothing, and is tied only at twenty-five, which follows the measure of yin. Yang is slow and yin is quick. Thirty is three completions, an odd number, the measure of yang. Twenty is two completions, an even number, the measure of yin. Yang is minorly completed in yin and greatly completed in yang, so a man is capped at twenty and marries at thirty. Yin is minorly completed in yang and greatly completed in yin, so a woman pins her hair at fifteen and marries at twenty.

一說《春秋梁傳》曰：“男二十五系，女十五許嫁，感陰陽也。”陽數七，陰數八，男八歲毀齒，女七歲毀齒。陽數奇三，三八二十四，加一為五而繫心也；陰數偶，再成十四，四加一為五，故十五許嫁也。各加一者，明專一系心。所以繫心者何？防其淫佚也。

Another account: the Guliang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals says: "A man at twenty-five binds his heart, and a girl at fifteen is promised in marriage, in response to yin and yang." The number of yang is seven and that of yin is eight; a boy changes his teeth at eight and a girl at seven. The odd number of yang is three, and three times eight is twenty-four, to which one is added to make twenty-five, when the heart is bound. The even number of yin completes twice to fourteen, to which one is added to make fifteen, so at fifteen she is promised. Each adds one, showing a single-minded binding of the heart. Why bind the heart? To prevent licentiousness.

《禮》曰：“女子十五許嫁。納采、問名、納吉、請期、親迎，以雁贄。納徵曰玄，故不用雁。”贄用雁者，取其隨時南北，不失其節，明不奪女子之時也。又取飛成行、止成列也，明嫁娶之禮，長幼有序，不相逾越也。又婚禮贄不用死雉，故用雁也。納徵，玄、束帛、離皮，玄三法天，二法地也，陽奇陰偶，明陽道之大也。離皮者，兩皮也，以為庭實。庭實，偶也。《禮?昏經》曰：“納采、問名、納吉、請期、親迎，皆用雁。納徵束帛、離皮。”

The Rites says: "A girl is promised at fifteen. For the presentation of the choice, the inquiry of the name, the report of the auspicious divination, the request for the date, and the personal welcome, a wild goose is used as the gift. The betrothal gift is called dark and light-red silk, so no goose is used." The goose is used as a gift because it goes north and south in its season without losing its timing, showing that the woman's time is not taken from her. It also flies in rows and rests in lines, showing that in the rites of marriage the elder and younger have their order and do not overstep each other. Also, a dead pheasant is not used as the marriage gift, so the goose is used. For the betrothal gift: dark and light-red silk, a bundle of silk, and a pair of deerskins. The three of the dark follows Heaven and the two of the light-red follows Earth; yang is odd and yin is even, showing the greatness of the Way of yang. A pair of skins is two skins, set out as the courtyard offering. The courtyard offering is even-numbered. The Marriage Classic in the Rites says: "For the presentation of the choice, the inquiry of the name, the report of the auspicious divination, the request for the date and the personal welcome, all use the goose. For the betrothal gift, use a bundle of silk and a pair of deerskins."

納徵詞曰：“吾子有加命，貺室某也。有先人之禮，離皮、束帛，使某請納徵。”上某者聲名也，下次某者使人名也。女之父曰：“吾子順先典，貺某重禮，某不敢辭，敢不承命！”

The words for the betrothal gift: "You, sir, have added to your commands and bestowed a favor on the household of So-and-so. In keeping with the rites of the forebears, a pair of skins and a bundle of silk, I have sent So-and-so to request the betrothal gift." The first So-and-so is the name of the family, the second So-and-so the name of the envoy. The girl's father says: "You, sir, have followed the ancient statutes and bestowed a weighty gift on So-and-so. I dare not decline; how dare I not accept the command!"

納采詞曰：“吾子有惠，貺貺室某，某有先人之禮，使某也請納采。”對曰：“某之子蠢愚，又不能教，吾子命之，某不敢辭。”

The words for the presentation of the choice: "You, sir, have been gracious and bestowed this favor on the household of So-and-so. In keeping with the rites of the forebears, I have sent So-and-so to request the presentation of the choice." The reply: "The son of So-and-so is foolish and moreover cannot be taught; since you, sir, command it, I dare not decline."

天子下至士，必親迎授綏者何？以陽下陰也，欲得其歡心，示親之心也。夫親迎輪三週，下車曲顧者，防淫佚也。《詩》云：“文定厥祥，親迎於渭。造舟為梁，不顯其光。”《禮?昏經》曰：“賓升，北面奠雁，再拜拜手稽首，降出。婦從房中也，從降自西階。揖御婦車，授綏。”

From the Son of Heaven down to the officer, one must go in person to welcome the bride and hand her the carriage cord. Why? It is for yang to humble itself before yin, to win her affection, and to show a heart of intimacy. When the husband welcomes the bride in person, the carriage wheels turn three times, and he gets down and looks back, to prevent licentiousness. The Book of Odes says: "The betrothal was set auspiciously; he welcomed her in person at the Wei. Boats were joined to make a bridge; how bright was the glory!" The Marriage Classic in the Rites says: "The guest ascends the hall, faces north and sets down the goose, bows twice, bows with joined hands and head to the ground, then descends the steps and goes out. The bride comes out from the chamber and follows him down the western steps. He bows, drives the bride's carriage, and hands her the cord."

遣女於禰廟者，重先人之遺支體也，不敢自專，故告禰也。父母親男女何？親親之至也。父曰：“誡之，敬之，夙夜無違命。”女必有端繡衣若笄之。母施襟結曰：“勉之，敬之，夙夜無違宮事。”父誡於阼階，母誡於西階，庶母及門內施ひ，祭糹由以母之命，命曰：“敬恭聽爾父母言，夙夜無愆。”視衿ひ。祭去不辭，誡不諾者，蓋恥之，重去也。

Sending the daughter off in the ancestral temple shows respect for the limbs left by her forefathers; she dares not decide on her own, so the ancestor is informed. Why do the parents personally see off the man and woman? Because intimacy with kin reaches its utmost. The father says: "Be cautious, be reverent; morning and night do not disobey the command." The woman must wear an embroidered formal robe as if for the hairpin ceremony. Her mother fastens her sash and ties her kerchief, saying: "Strive, be reverent; morning and night do not fail in the work of the household." The father cautions her at the eastern steps and the mother at the western steps, and the concubine-mother at the inner gate ties on her knee-covering; on the matter of the sacrifice the mother's command is used, and she is commanded: "Respectfully heed the words of your father and mother; morning and night be without fault." They look to her collar and knee-covering. When the sacrifice is finished, she leaves without taking leave and is cautioned without replying, probably out of shame and the weight of parting.

《禮》曰：“嫁女之家，不絕火三日，思相離也。娶婦之家，三日不舉樂，思嗣親也。”感親年衰老代至也。《禮》曰：“婚禮不賀，人之序也。”

The Rites says: "In the family that marries off a daughter, the fire is not put out for three nights, for they think of the separation. In the family that takes a bride, music is not played for three days, for they think of the succession of the parents." They grieve that the parents are aging and being replaced. The Rites says: "At a wedding no congratulations are offered, for it is the order of people."

授綏，姆辭曰：“未教，未乞與為禮也。”始親迎，於詞曰：“吾子命某以茲初昏，使某將請承命。”主人曰：“某故敬具以酒。”父命醮子，遣之迎，命曰：“往迎爾相，承我宗事，率以敬先妣之嗣，若則有常。”子曰：“諾，惟恐不堪，不敢忘命。”

When handing over the carriage cord, the governess's words are: "She is not yet taught, and has not yet begged to perform the rite with him." At the start of the personal welcome, the words are: "You, sir, commanded So-and-so on this first evening, and sent So-and-so to request to receive the command." The host says: "So-and-so has respectfully prepared wine." The father gives his command and pours the toast to his son, sending him to welcome the bride, and commands: "Go and welcome your helpmate, to carry on my ancestral duties; lead her to respectfully continue the line of your late mother, and you must keep to the regular way." The son says: "Yes. I only fear I may not be equal to it, but I dare not forget the command."

娶妻不先告廟到者，示不必安也。婚禮請期，不敢必也。婦入三月，然後祭行。舅姑既歿，亦婦入三月，奠採於廟。三月一時，物有成者，人之善惡可得知也。然後可得事宗廟之禮。曾子曰：“女未廟見而死，歸葬於女氏之黨，示未成婦也。”

If a man takes a wife and arrives without first announcing it at the temple, it shows that it is not certain she is settled. In the marriage rite the request for the date does not dare to be definite. After the bride has entered, three months pass, and then she performs the sacrifice. If her parents-in-law have already died, it is also after the bride has entered for three months that she makes an offering of vegetables in the temple. Three months make one season, in which things reach completion and a person's goodness or badness can be known. Only then may she obtain the rite of serving the ancestral temple. Zengzi said: "If a girl dies before she has been presented at the temple, she is returned for burial to the clan of her own family, showing that she has not yet become a wife."

嫁娶必以春者？春天地交通，萬物始生，陰陽交接之時也。《詩》云：“士如歸妻，迨冰未泮。”《周官》曰：“仲春之月，合會男女。令男三十娶，女二十嫁。”《夏小正》曰：“二月，冠子娶婦之時。”

Why must marriages take place in spring? In spring Heaven and Earth communicate and the myriad things begin to grow; it is the time when yin and yang meet. The Book of Odes says: "If a man is to bring home a wife, let it be before the ice has melted." The Rites of Zhou says: "In the middle month of spring, bring men and women together. Order that men marry at thirty and women at twenty." The Xia Xiaozheng says: "The second month is the time for capping sons and taking wives."

夫有惡行，妻不得去者，地無去天之義也。夫雖有惡，不得去也。故《禮?郊特牲》曰：“一與之齊，終身不改。”悖逆人倫，殺妻父母，廢絕綱紀，亂之大者，義絕乃得去也。

A wife cannot leave her husband even if he has vices, because Earth has no righteousness of leaving Heaven. Even if the husband is bad, she may not leave him. Hence the Jiao Te Sheng in the Record of Rites says: "Once joined as equals, she does not change for life." Only when he goes against human relations, kills his wife's parents, or destroys the guiding threads, which is the greatest of disorders, is righteousness severed and she may leave.

天子、諸侯，一娶九女者何？重國廣繼嗣也。適也者何？法地有九州，承天之施，無所不生也。娶九女，亦足以成君施也。九而無子，百亦無益也。《王度記》曰：“天子，一娶九女。”《春秋公羊傳》曰：“諸侯娶一國，則二國往媵之，以侄娣從之。”侄者何？兄之子也。娣者何？女弟也。

Why do the Son of Heaven and the lords take nine women at once? To value the state and extend the continuation of descent. What is the primary wife? It follows the nine provinces of Earth, receiving Heaven's bestowal and giving birth to all without exception. Taking nine women is also enough to complete the ruler's bestowal. If nine have no son, a hundred would be of no benefit. The Wang Du Ji says: "The Son of Heaven takes nine women at once." The Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals says: "When a lord takes a wife from one state, two states send secondary wives to accompany her, bringing nieces and younger sisters as attendants." What is a niece? The daughter of the elder brother. What is a younger sister? The younger sister of the bride.

或曰：天子娶十二女，法天有十二月，萬物必生也。必一娶何？防淫也，為其棄德嗜色，故一娶而已，人君無再娶之義也。

Some say the Son of Heaven takes twelve women, following the twelve months of Heaven, when the myriad things surely grow. Why must he take them all at once? To prevent licentiousness [a rare character lost in transcription of the base text], out of fear that he would abandon virtue and indulge in beauty, so he takes them at once and that is all; a ruler has no righteousness of taking a second time.

備侄娣從者，為其必不相嫉妒也。一人有子，三人共之，若己生之。不娶兩娣何？博異氣也。娶三國女何？廣異類也。恐一國血脈相似，俱無子也。侄娣年雖少，猶從適人者，明人者。明人君無再娶之義也。還待年於父母之國，未任答君子也。《詩》云：“侄娣從之，祁祁如雲。韓侯顧之，爛其盈門。”《公羊傳》曰：“叔姬歸於紀。”明待年也。二國來媵，誰為尊者？大國為尊，國等以德，德同以色。質家法天尊左，文家法地尊右。

The nieces and younger sisters are provided as attendants because they will surely not be jealous of one another. If one has a son, the three share him as though he were their own. Why not take two younger sisters? To broaden the differences of qi. Why take women from three states? To extend the differences of kind, for fear that blood of one state is similar and all would be without sons. Though the nieces and younger sisters are young, they still follow and go to the husband, showing that a ruler has no righteousness of taking a second time. They still wait in their parents' state for the years to come, not yet able to answer a gentleman. The Book of Odes says: "Nieces and younger sisters follow, numerous as clouds. The Lord of Han looked back at them, their glory filling the gate." The Gongyang Commentary says: "Shu Ji went home to Ji," showing that she waited for her years. When two states send secondary wives, who is the more honored? The great state is honored; if the states are equal, compare virtue; if virtue is equal, compare beauty. The simple school follows Heaven and honors the left; the refined school follows Earth and honors the right.

所以不聘妾何？人有子孫，欲尊之義，義不可求人以為賤也。《春秋傳》曰：“二國來媵。”可求人為士，不可求人為妾何？士即尊之漸，賢，不止於士，妾雖賢，不得為。

Why does one not formally engage a concubine? When a person has sons and grandsons, the righteousness of honor is required, and in righteousness one may not seek out a person to be lowly. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Two states came with secondary wives." One may seek a person to be an officer but not a concubine; why? An officer is the very beginning of honor; a worthy person does not stop at being an officer; but even a worthy concubine cannot become the primary wife.

娶妻卜之何？卜女之德，知相宜否。《昏禮經》曰：“將加諸卜，敢問女為誰氏也。”

Why is divination used before taking a wife? To divine the woman's virtue and know whether she is suitable. The Marriage Rite Classic says: "When we are about to add the divination, may we ask whose family the girl is from?"

人君及宗子父母，自定娶者，卑不主尊，賤不主貴，故自定之也。《昏禮經》曰：“親皆沒，己聘命之。”《詩》云：“文定厥祥，親迎於渭。”

For a ruler, or for the parents of a clan heir, who decides the marriage themselves: this is because the lowly do not manage the honored and the base do not manage the noble, so they decide it themselves. The Marriage Rite Classic says: "If both parents are gone, he engages the match on his own command." The Book of Odes says: "The betrothal was set auspiciously; he welcomed her in person at the Wei."

大夫功成受封，得備八妾者，重國廣繼嗣也。不更聘大國者，不忘本也。故《禮》曰：“納女於諸侯，曰：備掃灑。”天子、諸侯之世子，皆以諸侯禮娶，與君同，示無再娶之義也。

A grand master who has completed his achievements and received a fief may keep eight concubines, valuing the state and extending the continuation of descent. He does not again engage a woman of a great state, so as not to forget his original primary wife. Hence the Rites says: "When a daughter is presented to a lord, it is said: to sweep and sprinkle." The heirs of the Son of Heaven and of the lords all marry by the rites of the lords, the same as the ruler, showing that there is no righteousness of marrying a second time.

王者之娶，必先選於大國之女，禮儀備，所見多。《詩》云：“大邦有子，亻見天之妹。文定厥祥，親迎於渭。”明王者必娶大國也。《春秋》曰：“紀侯來朝。”紀子以嫁女於天子，故增爵稱侯，至數十年之間，紀侯無他功，但以子為天王后，故爵稱侯。知雖小國者必封以大國，明其尊所不臣也。王者娶及庶人者何？開天下之賢示不遺善也。故《春秋》曰：“紀侯來朝。”文加為侯，明封之也，先封之，明不與聖人交禮也。

When a true king takes a wife, he must first choose a daughter of a great state, whose ritual conduct is complete and whose experience is broad. The Book of Odes says: "The great state had a daughter, likened to Heaven's younger sister. The betrothal was set auspiciously; he welcomed her in person at the Wei." It shows that a king must marry from a great state. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "The Marquis of Ji came to court." The lord of Ji had his title raised to marquis because he gave his daughter to the Son of Heaven; over several decades the Marquis of Ji had no other merit, and only because his daughter became queen of the Heavenly King did his title become marquis. From this we know that even a small state must be enfeoffed as a great state, showing that the king honors those he does not treat as ministers. A king may take wives even from commoners; why? To open the way to the worthy of the world and show that no goodness is overlooked. Hence the Spring and Autumn Annals says: "The Marquis of Ji came to court." The text adds the title of marquis, showing that he was enfeoffed, and that he was enfeoffed first, showing that he does not exchange rites of meeting with the sage.

女行虧缺而去其國，如之何以封為諸侯比例矣。諸侯所以不得自趣國中何？諸侯不得專封，義不可臣其父母。《春秋傳》曰：“宋三代無大夫，惡其內娶也。”

If a woman's conduct is deficient and she leaves her state, how is that compared with being enfeoffed as a lord? Why can a lord not go on his own to the state? A lord cannot enfeoff on his own authority, and in righteousness he may not treat his parents as ministers. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "For three generations Song had no grand masters, because the people disliked their marrying within the state."

不娶同姓者，重人倫，防淫，恥與禽獸同也。《論語》曰：“君娶於吳為同姓，謂之吳孟子。”《曲禮》曰：“買妾不知姓則卜之。”外屬小功已上亦不得娶也，以《春秋傳》曰：“譏娶母黨也。”

One does not marry someone of the same surname, valuing human relations and preventing licentiousness [a rare character lost in transcription of the base text], for it is shameful to be like the birds and beasts. The Analects says: "The ruler married a woman from Wu, of the same surname, and she was called Wu Mengzi." The Quli says: "If one buys a concubine and does not know her surname, one divines." One may also not marry a relative on the mother's side within the small mourning degree or closer, because the Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "It criticized marrying from the mother's kin."

王者嫁女必使同姓諸侯主之何？婚禮貴和，不可相答，為傷君臣之義，亦欲使女不以天子尊乘諸侯也。《春秋傳》曰：“天子嫁女於諸侯，必使諸侯同姓者主之；諸侯嫁女於大夫，使大夫同姓者主之。”以其同宗共祖可以主親也，故使攝父事。不使同姓卿主之何？尊加諸侯，為威厭不得舒也。

When a true king marries off a daughter, he must have a lord of the same surname preside over the marriage. Why? The rite of marriage values harmony, and the two sides must not exchange rites as equals, for that would harm the righteousness between ruler and minister, and also so that the bride will not rely on the Son of Heaven's honor to lord it over the lords. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "When the Son of Heaven marries a daughter to a lord, he must have a lord of the same surname preside; when a lord marries a daughter to a grand master, he has a grand master of the same surname preside." Because those of the same clan and ancestor can manage the match, he has them act in the father's place. Why not have a minister of the same surname preside? Because his honor would be placed above the lords, and his authority would so press them that they could not act freely.

不使同姓諸侯就京師主之何？諸侯親迎入京師，當朝天子，為禮不兼。《春秋傳》曰：“築王姬觀於外。”明不往京師也。

Why not have the lord of the same surname come to the capital to preside over the marriage? When a lord enters the capital to welcome the bride in person, he should have an audience with the Son of Heaven, and the rites cannot both be performed. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "A lodging for the royal princess was built outside," showing that he does not go to the capital.

所以必更築觀者何？尊之也，不於路寢，路寢本所以行政處，非婦人之居也。小寢則嫌群公子之舍則已卑矣，故必改築於城郭之內。《傳》曰：“築之，禮也。於外，非禮也。”

Why must a separate lodging be built? To honor her. It is not placed in the main hall, because the main hall is by nature the place of government and not a dwelling for women. The small chambers would be too lowly beside the dwellings of the ducal sons, so it must be built anew inside the city walls. The Commentary says: "To build it is proper. Outside is not proper."

卿、大夫一妻二妾者何？尊賢重繼嗣也。不備侄娣何？北面之臣賤，不足盡執人骨肉之親。《禮?服經》曰：“貴臣貴妾。”明有卑賤妾也。士一妻何？下卿大夫禮。《喪服小記》曰：“士妾有子，則為之緦。”

Ministers and grand masters have one wife and two concubines. Why? To honor the worthy and value succession. Why do they not provide nieces and younger sisters? A minister who faces north is lowly and not enough to take the flesh and blood of another family. The Mourning Dress Classic in the Rites says: "Noble ministers and noble concubines," showing that there are lowly concubines. Why does an officer have one wife? Because it is below the ritual of ministers and grand masters. The Minor Notes on Mourning says: "If an officer's concubine has a son, he wears the fine hemp mourning for her."

聘嫡夫往而死，媵當往否乎？人君不再娶之義也。天命不可保，故一娶九女。以《春秋》伯姬卒，時娣季姬更嫁曾阝，《春秋》譏之。夫人死後更立夫人者，不敢以卑賤承宗廟。自立其娣者，尊大國也。《春秋傳》曰：“叔姬歸於紀。”叔姬者，伯姬之娣也。伯姬卒，叔姬升於嫡，《經》不譏也。或曰：嫡死不復更立，明嫡無二，防篡煞也。祭宗廟攝而已。以禮不聘為妾，明不升。

When the primary wife has been engaged and the husband goes and dies, should the secondary wives go? A ruler has the righteousness of not taking a second time. The mandate of Heaven cannot be guaranteed, so he takes nine women at once. In the Spring and Autumn Annals, when Bo Ji died, her younger sister Ji Ji was then married off to Zeng, and the Annals criticized it. After the primary wife dies, another is established as the lady, for one dares not use a lowly one to serve the ancestral temple. Establishing her own younger sister is to honor the great state. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Shu Ji went home to Ji." Shu Ji was Bo Ji's younger sister. When Bo Ji died, Shu Ji was raised to be the primary wife, and the Classic did not criticize it. Some say: when the primary wife dies no other is established, showing that the primary wife is not doubled, to prevent usurpation and murder; at the ancestral sacrifices she merely acts in that role. By ritual one does not engage a concubine, showing that she is not raised.

《曾子問》曰：“昏禮既納幣，有吉日，女之父母死，何如？孔子曰：“婿使人吊之，如婿之父母死，女亦使人吊之。父喪稱父，母喪稱母。父母不在，則稱伯父、世尊。婿已葬，婿之伯父、叔父使人致命女氏曰：某子有父母之喪，不得嗣為兄弟，使某致命。女氏許諾不敢嫁，禮也。婿免喪，女父使人請，婿不娶而後嫁之，禮也。女之父母死，婿亦如之。’”

The Zengzi Wen says: "If the betrothal gift has been presented and the auspicious day is set, and then the girl's parent dies, what is done?" Confucius said: "The groom sends someone to offer condolences, as if the groom's own parent had died, and the bride also sends someone to offer condolences. For a father's death one says 'father', for a mother's death 'mother'. If the parents are no longer living, one speaks of the paternal uncle or the elder aunt. After the groom has buried his parent, his paternal uncle sends someone to tell the bride's family: 'The son of So-and-so is in mourning for his parent and cannot continue as a brother-in-law; I have sent So-and-so to say so.' The bride's family consents and does not dare to marry her elsewhere; this is proper. When the groom ends his mourning, the bride's father sends someone to request him, and if the groom does not marry her, only then is she married to another; this is proper. If the bride's parent dies, the groom does likewise."

婦人所以有師何？學事人之道也。《詩》云：“言告師氏，言告言歸。”《昏禮經》曰：“告於公宮三月，婦人學一時，足以成矣。”與君無親者，各教於宗廟婦之室。國君取大夫之妾、士之妻老無子者而明於婦道，又祿之，使教宗室五屬之女，大夫、士皆有宗族，自於宗子之室學事人也。女必有傅姆何？尊之也。《春秋傳》曰：“傅至矣，姆未至。”

Why do women have teachers? To learn the Way of serving others. The Book of Odes says: "I speak to the teacher, I speak and then I go home." The Marriage Rite Classic says: "Instruction is given in the ducal palace for three months, and the woman learns for one season, which is enough to complete it." Those not related to the ruler are each taught in the chamber of a wife in the ancestral temple. The ruler chooses among the concubines of grand masters and the wives of officers those who are old and without sons but well versed in the Way of wives, and gives them a stipend, so that they teach the girls of the five degrees of the clan. Grand masters and officers all have clans and learn in the chamber of the clan head how to serve others. Why must a bride have a governess and a tutor? To honor her. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The tutor arrived, but the governess had not yet come."

婦人學事舅姑，不學事必父母者，示婦與夫一體也。《禮?內則》曰：“妾事夫人如事舅姑，尊嫡絕妒嫉之原。”《禮?服傳》曰：“妾事女君與事舅姑同也。”婦事夫有四禮焉：雞初鳴，鹹盥漱，櫛縱笄總而朝，君臣之道也；惻隱之恩，父子之道也；會計有無，兄弟之道也；閨閫之內，衽席之上，朋友之道也。聞見異詞，故設此也。

A woman learns to serve her parents-in-law and does not learn to serve her own parents, showing that wife and husband are one body. The Domestic Rules in the Record of Rites says: "A concubine serves the lady as she serves her parents-in-law, honoring the primary wife and cutting off the root of jealousy." The Mourning Commentary in the Rites says: "A concubine serves the lady of the house in the same way as she serves her parents-in-law." A wife serves her husband by four rites: at the first cockcrow all wash and rinse their mouths, comb their hair, put in the hairpin and bind the hair, and pay respects, which is the Way of ruler and minister; the grace of compassion is the Way of father and son; reckoning what they have and lack is the Way of brothers; and within the women's quarters and on the sleeping mat is the Way of friends. Because what is heard and seen and the words used differ, these were established.

有五不娶：亂家之子不娶，逆家之子，世有刑人，惡疾，喪婦長子，此不娶也。

There are five kinds one does not marry: the daughter of a family in disorder, the daughter of a rebellious family, a family with generations of men who suffered punishment, one with a malignant disease, and the eldest daughter of a family that has lost its mother. These one does not marry.

出婦之義，必送之。接以賓客之禮，君子絕愈於小人之交。《詩》云：“薄送我畿。”

When a wife is sent away, righteousness requires that she be escorted. She is received with the ritual of a guest, for a gentleman's severing of ties is better than a petty person's relations. The Book of Odes says: "He escorted me a little way to the border."

天子妃謂之後何？後君也。天下尊之妃至尊，故謂之後，明海內小人之君子也，天下尊之，故系王言之。《春秋傳》曰：“迎王后於紀。”國君之妻稱之曰夫人何？明當扶進夫人，謂八妾也。國人尊之，故稱君夫人也。自稱小童者，謙也，言己智能寡少如童蒙也。《論語》曰：“國君之妻，稱之曰夫人，夫人自稱曰小童，國人稱之曰君夫人，稱諸異邦曰寡小君。”謂聘問兄弟之國及臣他國稱之。謙之詞也。

Why is the consort of the Son of Heaven called "queen"? The word hou means "ruler". The world honors this consort to the utmost, so she is called hou, showing that among the lesser people within the seas she is the gentleman, and since the world honors her, she is attached to the king when spoken of. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "They went to Ji to welcome the queen." Why is the wife of a lord called "lady"? It shows that she ought to be advanced to the position of lady, which refers to the eight concubines. The people of the state honor her, so she is called "the lady of the ruler". Calling herself "little child" is humility, meaning that her wisdom is scant like that of a child. The Analects says: "The wife of the ruler is called 'lady' by the ruler; the lady calls herself 'little child'; the people of the state call her 'lady of the ruler'; speaking of her to another state, they call her 'the humble little ruler'." This refers to what is said at visits to brother states and by ministers in other states, a humble form of address.

妻者，何謂？妻者，齊也，與夫齊體，自天子下至庶人其義一也。妾者，接也，以時接見也。

What is the meaning of qi (wife)? Qi means "equal": she is of one body equal to her husband, and from the Son of Heaven down to the commoner the righteousness is the same. Qie (concubine) means "to receive": she is received at the proper time.

嫁娶者，何謂也？嫁者，家也，婦人外成，以出人為家。娶者，取也。男女謂男者，任也，任功業也；女者，如也，從如人也。在家從父母，既嫁從夫，夫歿從子也。《傳》曰：“婦人有三從之義也。”夫婦者，何謂也？夫者，扶也，扶以人道者也；婦者，服也，服於家事，事人者也。配疋者何？謂相與為偶也。婚姻者，何謂也？昏時行禮，故謂之婚也，婦人因夫而成；故曰姻。《詩》云：“不惟舊因。”謂夫也。又曰：“燕爾新婚。”謂婦也。所以昏時行禮何？示陽下陰也，婚亦陰陽交時也。

What do jia and qu (marry out and take a wife) mean? Jia means "home": a woman completes herself outside, so by going out to a husband she makes a home. Qu means "to take". As for nan and nu (man and woman): nan means "to bear", bearing the work; nu means "to follow", to follow and be like others. At home she follows her parents, once married she follows her husband, and when the husband dies she follows her son. The Commentary says: "A woman has the righteousness of the three followings." What do fu (husband) and fu (wife) mean? Fu (husband) means "to support", supporting with the human Way; fu (wife) means "to submit", submitting to household affairs and serving others. What is pei (match)? It means being each other's partner. What do hun and yin mean? The ritual is performed at dusk, hence it is called hun, and a woman is completed through her husband, hence it is called yin. The Book of Odes says: "Not only the old ties," speaking of the husband. It also says: "Delighting in your new marriage," speaking of the wife. Why is the ritual performed at dusk? It shows yang humbling itself before yin, and dusk is also the time when yin and yang meet.

男子六十閉房何？所以輔衰也，故重性命也。又曰：父子不同礻施。為亂長幼之序也。《禮?內則》曰：“妾雖老，未滿五十，必預五日之御，滿五十不御，俱為助衰也。至七十大衰，食非肉不飽，寢非人不暖；七十復開房也。”

At sixty a man closes his chamber; why? To support his weakening, so he values life. It is also said that father and son do not share a mat, so as not to confuse the order of elder and younger. The Domestic Rules in the Record of Rites says: "Even when a concubine is old, until fifty she must take part in the five-day rotation of service; after fifty she no longer serves, all to support the weakening. At seventy he is greatly weak; unless he eats meat he is not full, and unless he sleeps with someone he is not warm; at seventy the chamber is opened again."

紼者，何謂也？紼者，蔽也，行以蔽前，紼蔽者小。有事因以別尊卑，彰有德也。天子朱紼，諸侯赤紼。《詩》云：“朱紼斯皇，室家君王。”又云：“赤紼金舄，會同有繹。”又云：“赤紼在股。”皆謂諸侯也。《書》曰：“黼黻衣，黃朱紼。”亦謂諸侯也。並見衣服之制，故遠別之，謂黃朱亦赤矣。大夫蔥衡，別於君矣。天子大夫赤紱蔥衡，士。朱赤者，或盛色也，是以聖人塗法之用為紼服，為百王不易也。紼以韋為之者，反古不忘本也。上廣一尺，下廣二尺，天一地二也；長三尺，法天、地、人也。

What does fu (the knee-covering) mean? Fu means "to cover": it screens the front when walking. The covering is small. Because it is used on duty it distinguishes the honored from the lowly and displays virtue. The Son of Heaven wears vermilion and the lords red. The Book of Odes says: "The vermilion knee-covering is splendid, for the lord of the house and the king." It also says: "Red knee-covering and golden shoes, at the assemblies there is feasting." It also says: "The red knee-covering is on the thigh." All of these refer to the lords. The Book of Documents says: "Embroidered robes, yellow and vermilion knee-coverings," which also refers to the lords. Together they show the system of clothing, so distinguishing from afar, "yellow-vermilion" is also red. Grand masters have a green-grey band, set apart from the ruler. The Son of Heaven's grand masters wear a red covering with a green-grey band, and the officers [a rare character lost in transcription of the base text] [a rare character lost in transcription of the base text]. Vermilion and red are sometimes the prosperous color, so the sages took them to make the knee-covering, which no hundred kings changed. The covering is made of leather, returning to antiquity and not forgetting the root. It is one foot wide at the top and two feet wide at the bottom, Heaven one and Earth two; it is three feet long, following Heaven, Earth and humankind.

所以有冠者卷也？所以卷持其發也。人懷五常，莫不貴德，示成禮有修飾首，別成人也。《士冠經》曰：“冠而字之，敬其名也。”《論語》曰：“冠者五六人，童子六七人。”禮所以十九見正而冠何？漸三十之人耳。男子陽也，成於陰，故二十而冠，《曲禮》曰：“二十弱冠。”言見正。何以知不謂正月也？以《禮?士冠經》曰：“夏葛屨，冬皮屨。”明非歲之正月也。

Why is there a cap, and is it [a rare character lost in transcription of the base text]? It is used to [a rare character lost in transcription of the base text] hold the hair in place. Humans carry the five constants and none fails to value virtue, so it shows the completion of ritual, adornment at the head, and the distinction of an adult. The Capping Classic for Officers says: "After capping he is given a style name, out of respect for his name." The Analects says: "Five or six capped men, six or seven boys." Why does ritual cap a youth at nineteen, seeing the first month? It is only approaching the age of thirty. A man is yang and is completed in yin, so he is capped at twenty. The Quli says: "At twenty he is called a young man and is capped," which refers to seeing the first month. How do we know it does not mean the first month of the year? Because the Capping Classic for Officers in the Rites says: "In summer, hemp sandals; in winter, leather sandals," showing that it is not the first month of the year.

皮弁者，何謂也？所以法古，至質冠名也。弁之言攀也，所以攀持其發也。上古之時質，先加服皮以鹿皮者，取其文章也。《禮》曰：“三王共皮弁素積。”裳也，腰中闢積，至質不易之服，反古不忘本也。戰伐田獵，此皆服之。

What does pibian (the leather cap) mean? It is used to follow antiquity, and is the name of the plainest cap. Bian means "to hold", used to hold the hair. In high antiquity people were plain, and so they first put on leather, using deerskin for its pattern. The Rites says: "The Three Kings all used the leather cap and the plain pleated skirt." The skirt is pleated at the waist; it is the plainest, unchanging dress, returning to antiquity and not forgetting the root. In war, campaigns and hunting, people wear it.

麻冕者何？周宗廟之冠也。《禮》曰：“周冕而祭。”又曰：“殷旱夏收而祭。”此三代宗廟之冠也。十一月之時，陽氣冕仰黃泉之下，萬物被施前冕，而後仰，故謂之冕。謂之詡者，十二月之時，施氣受化詡張而後得牙，故謂之詡。謂之收者，十三月之時，氣收本，舉生萬物而達出之，故謂之收。冕仰不同，故前後乖也。詡張，故萌大，時物亦牙萌大也。收而達，故前蔥大者，在後時物亦前蔥也。糹免所以用麻為之者，女功之始，亦不忘本也。即不忘本不用皮，皮乃太古未有禮文之服，故《論語》曰：“麻冕，禮也。”《尚書》曰：“王麻冕。”冕所以前後遞延者何？示進賢退不能也。垂旒者，示不現邪。纊塞耳，示不聽讒也。故水清無魚，人察無徒，明不尚極知下。故《禮》云：“王藻曰，十有二旒，前後遞延。”《禮器》云：“天子麻冕，朱綠藻，垂十有二旒者，法四時十二月也。諸侯九旒。大夫七旒。士爵弁，無旒。”

What is the hemp cap? It is the cap of the Zhou ancestral temple. The Rites says: "The Zhou sacrificed in the mian cap." It also says: "The Yin sacrificed in the fu cap and the Xia in the shou cap." These are the caps for the ancestral temples of the three dynasties. In the eleventh month, the yang qi bows down beneath the Yellow Springs, the myriad things are bestowed upon, first bowing and then rising, so it is called mian. It is called xu because in the twelfth month the qi is bestowed and transformed, and spreading out it can then sprout, so it is called xu. It is called shou because in the thirteenth month the qi is gathered back to the root, lifts and gives birth to the myriad things and reaches through, so it is called shou. The bowing differs, so front and back are at odds. Spreading out, the sprouts are large, and at the time things too sprout large. Gathering and reaching through, the large front shoots are at the back, and at the time things too have front shoots. The mian is made of hemp because it is the beginning of women's work and also does not forget the root. Since it does not forget the root it does not use leather, for leather is the dress of the great antiquity before ritual patterns, hence the Analects says: "The hemp cap is ritual." The Book of Documents says: "The king wore the hemp cap." Why do the mian strings hang down front and back? To show advancing the worthy and dismissing the incapable. The hanging strings show that he does not look at evil. The cotton plugs for the ears show that he does not listen to slander. Hence when water is clear it has no fish, and when a man is over-observant he has no followers, showing that one does not value probing everything below. Hence the Rites says: "The Yuzao says: twelve strings, hanging front and back." The Liqi says: "The Son of Heaven wears the hemp cap with vermilion and green ornaments, twelve strings hanging, following the twelve months of the four seasons. The lords have nine strings. The grand masters seven. The officers wear the sparrow-colored cap, with no strings."

委貌者，何謂也？周朝廷理政事、行道德之冠名。《士冠經》曰：“委貌周道，章甫殷道，毋追夏后氏之道。”所以謂之委貌何？周統十一月為正，萬物萌小，故為冠飾最小，故曰委貌。委貌者，委曲有貌也。殷統十二月為正，其飾微大，故曰章甫。章甫者，尚未與極其本相當也。夏者統十三月為正，其飾最大，故曰毋追。毋追者，言其追大也。

What does weimao mean? It is the name of the cap in which the Zhou court governed and practiced virtue. The Capping Classic for Officers says: "The weimao is the Way of Zhou, the zhangfu is the Way of Yin, and the wuzhui is the Way of the Xia sovereign." Why is it called weimao? The Zhou took the eleventh month as the head of the year, when the myriad things sprout small, so the cap ornament is smallest, and hence it is called weimao, meaning "bent and shaped". The Yin took the twelfth month as the head, and the ornament is somewhat larger, so it is called zhangfu. Zhangfu means that it does not yet match its original extreme. The Xia took the thirteenth month as the head, and the ornament is largest, so it is called wuzhui. Wuzhui means that it pursues the large.

爵弁者，周人宗廟士之冠也。《禮?郊特牲》曰：“周弁”，《士冠經》曰“周弁，殷旱，夏收”。爵何以知指謂其色？又乍言爵弁，乍但言弁。周之冠色所以爵何？為周尚赤，所以不純赤。但如爵頭何？以本制冠者法天。天色玄者，不失其質，故周加赤，殷加白，夏之冠色純玄。何以知殷加白也？周加赤，知殷加白也。夏、殷士冠不異何？古質也，以《士冠禮》知之。

The sparrow-colored cap was the cap of officers in the Zhou ancestral temple. The Jiao Te Sheng in the Record of Rites says: "the Zhou bian," and the Capping Classic for Officers says: "the Zhou bian, the Yin fu, the Xia shou." How do we know "sparrow" refers to its color? Sometimes it says the sparrow bian and sometimes only bian. Why is the Zhou cap color sparrow? Because the Zhou honored red, but it is not pure red. It only resembles the sparrow's head; why? Because the cap was originally made after Heaven. Heaven's color is dark, so as not to lose plainness, the Zhou added red, the Yin added white, and the Xia cap was pure dark. How do we know the Yin added white? When the Zhou added red, one knows the Yin added white. The caps of the Xia and Yin officers were not different; why? In antiquity people were plain, as is known from the Rite of Capping for Officers.

諸侯為天子斬衰三年何？普天之下，莫非王土。率土之賓，莫非王臣。臣之於君，猶子之於父。明至尊、臣子之義也。《喪服經》曰：“諸侯為天子，斬衰三年。”天子為諸侯。絕其何？示同愛百姓，明不獨親也。故《禮?中庸》曰：“期之喪達乎諸侯，三年之喪達乎天子。”卿大夫降緦，重公正也。

Why do the lords wear the coarsest mourning for three years for the Son of Heaven? "Under the whole of Heaven, none is not the king's land. To the shore of the whole land, none is not the king's subject." A minister toward his ruler is like a son toward his father. This shows the utmost honor and the righteousness of minister and son. The Mourning Dress Classic says: "For the Son of Heaven, the lords wear the coarsest mourning for three years." Why does the Son of Heaven put off mourning for the lords? To show that he loves the hundred clans equally and that he is not intimate with only some. Hence the Zhong Yong in the Record of Rites says: "The one-year mourning reaches the lords; the three-year mourning reaches the Son of Heaven." Ministers and grand masters reduce to the fine hemp mourning, valuing impartiality.

禮，庶人國君服齊衰三月。王者崩，京師之民喪三月何？民賤，故思淺，故三月而已。天子七月而葬，諸侯五月而葬者，則民始哭，素服；先葬三月，成齊衰；期月以成禮，葬君也。禮不下庶人何？所以為民制何？禮不下庶人者，尊卑制度也。服者，恩從內發，故為之制也。

By ritual commoners wear the second-grade mourning for three months for the ruler of the state. When a true king dies, the people of the capital mourn for three months; why? The people are lowly, so the grace is shallow, and thus it is only three months. The Son of Heaven is buried in seven months and the lords in five, and the people then begin to wail and wear plain clothes; three months before the burial they make the mourning clothes; and when the month is full they complete the rite and bury the ruler. Ritual does not descend to commoners; why, then, is it made for the people? That ritual does not descend to commoners is a matter of the system of honor and rank. As for mourning dress, the grace issues from within, so it is made for them.

王者崩，臣下服之有先後何？恩有淺深遠近，故制有日月。《檀弓》記曰：“天子崩，三日祝先服，五日官長服，七日國中男女服，三月天下服。”

When a true king dies, subjects take up mourning at different times; why? Grace has shallow and deep, near and far, so the system has its days and months. The Tangong says: "When the Son of Heaven dies, on the third day the invocators put on mourning first, on the fifth day the heads of the offices, on the seventh day the men and women of the capital, and in the third month the whole world."

三年之喪何二十五月？以為古民質，痛於死者，不封不樹，喪期無數，亡之則除。後代聖人因天地萬物有終始而為之制，以期斷之。父至尊，母至親，故為於隆，以盡孝子恩。恩愛至深，加之則倍，故再期二十五月也。禮有取於三，故謂之三年，緣其漸三年之氣也。故《春秋傳》曰：“三年之喪，其實二十五月也。”三年之喪不以閏月數何？以言其期也。期者，復其時也。大功已下月數，故以閏月除。《禮?士虞經》曰：“言期而小祥。”“又期而大祥。”

Why does the mourning for three years last twenty-five months? It is held that in ancient times the people were simple and plain, and grieved deeply for the dead. They neither heaped up a grave mound nor planted trees, and the period of mourning had no fixed number; when they forgot their grief, they simply ended it. Later sages, because Heaven, Earth and the myriad things all have a beginning and an end, set a rule for mourning and cut it off by the cycle of the year. The father is the most honored and the mother the most beloved, so mourning for them is made weighty, in order to fulfill the filial son's devotion. Since affection is deepest, the period is doubled when it is extended, hence two years plus one, twenty-five months. The rites take their model from the number three, so it is called three years, following the gradual passing of the qi of three years. Therefore the Spring and Autumn Annals commentary says: "The mourning of three years is in fact twenty-five months." Why is the mourning of three years not counted with intercalary months? Because it is reckoned by the full year. A full year means the return of that same season. Mourning of the great-merit grade and below is counted by months, so intercalary months are removed from it. The Classic of Rites, in the Shi Yu section, says: "At the full year comes the minor sacrifice." "After another full year comes the major sacrifice."

喪禮必制衰麻何？以副意也。服以飾情，情貌相配，中外相應，故吉凶不同服，歌哭不同聲。所以表中誠也。布衰裳、麻、箭笄、繩纓、苴杖，為略及本者，亦示也。故總而載之，示有喪也。腰者，以代紳帶也，所以結之何？思慕腸若結也。必再結之何？明思慕無已。

Why must mourning rites always include garments of coarse hemp? They are made to match the heart. Dress is used to adorn feeling; when feeling and appearance match, and the inner and outer correspond, then auspicious and ill-omened occasions are worn differently, and singing and wailing sound different. It is used to display sincerity of heart. The cloth tunic and skirt, the hemp sash, the arrow-bamboo hairpin, the rope cap-strings and the staff of hemp-plant bamboo are all simple and return to the root. The sash too is a sign. So they are recorded together as signs, to show that there is a death in mourning. The waist sash takes the place of the ordinary girdle. Why is it tied in a knot? Because the longing bowels are as if knotted. Why must it be tied a second time? To show that longing has no end.

所以必杖者，孝子失親，悲哀哭泣，三日不食，身體羸病，故杖以扶身，明不以死傷生也。禮童子婦人不杖者，以其不能病也。《禮》曰：“斬衰三日不食，齊衰二日不食，大功一日不食，小功、緦麻一日不食再不食可也。”以竹何？取其名也。竹者蹙也，桐者痛也。父以竹，母以桐何？竹者陽也，桐者陰也。竹何以為陽？竹斷而用之，質，故為陽；桐削而用之，加人功，文，故為陰也。故《禮》曰：“苴杖，竹也。削杖，桐也。”

Why must a staff always be used? Because when a filial son loses a parent, he mourns and weeps, does not eat for three days, and his body grows weak and ill, so he uses a staff to support himself, showing that he does not let the dead harm the living. By the rites, boys and women do not use a staff, because they are not able to fall ill from grief. The Rites say: "For the coarsest mourning, fast for three days; for the second grade, fast for two days; for the great-merit grade, fast for one day; for the small-merit and finest hemp grades, fast for one day, and it is also permitted to fast again." Why is bamboo used? It takes its meaning from the name. Bamboo suggests being cramped, and the tung tree suggests pain. Why is bamboo used for the father and tung for the mother? Bamboo is yang and tung is yin. Why is bamboo yang? Bamboo is used once cut off, and so is plain in substance, hence yang; tung is used only after being trimmed, which adds human labor and refinement, hence yin. Therefore the Rites say: "The staff of hemp-plant bamboo is bamboo. The trimmed staff is tung."

所以必居倚廬何？孝子哀，不欲聞人之聲，又不欲居故處，居中門之外。倚木為廬，質反古也。不在門外何？戒不虞故也。故《禮?大傳》曰：“父母之喪，居倚廬。”於中門外，東牆下，戶北面。練而居堊室，無餘之室。又曰：“婦人不居倚廬。”又曰：“天子七日，又曰：“公、諸侯五日，卿、大夫三日而成服。”

Why must one live in a lean-to hut beside the grave? The filial son is grieved and does not wish to hear the voices of other people, nor to stay in his old dwelling, so he lives outside the middle gate. He leans timbers together to make a hut, which is plain and simple, returning to antiquity. Why is it not outside the main gate? To guard against the unforeseen. Therefore the Great Commentary in the Rites says: "In mourning for father or mother, one lives in a lean-to hut." It is outside the middle gate, beneath the east wall, with its door facing north. After the first anniversary rite, one lives in a plastered chamber, which means there is no extra room. It also says: "A woman does not live in a lean-to hut." And it says: "For the Son of Heaven, seven days"; and: "For dukes and lords, five days; for ministers and senior officers, the mourning dress is completed on the third day."

居外門內、東壁下、為廬，寢苫塊，哭無夜時，不脫帶。既虞，寢有席，疏食飲水，朝一哭，夕一哭而已。既練，舍外寢，居堊室，始食菜果，及素食，哭無時。二十五月而大祥，飲醴酒，食乾肉。二十七月而礻覃，通祭宗廟，去喪之殺也。

One lives inside the outer gate, beneath the east wall, in a hut, sleeping on a straw mat with a clod of earth as pillow. Wailing has no fixed time at night, and the sash is not untied. After the rite of repose, one has a mat to sleep on, eats coarse food and drinks water, and wails only once in the morning and once in the evening. After the first anniversary rite, one leaves the outer chamber and lives in the plastered chamber, begins to eat vegetables and fruit and plain food, and wailing has no fixed time. At twenty-five months comes the major sacrifice, and one may drink sweet wine and eat dried meat. At twenty-seven months comes the final sacrifice, and the ancestral temple is entered for general offerings, which removes the last of the reductions of mourning.

喪禮不言者何？思慕盡情也。言不文者，指謂士民。不言而事成者，國君、卿、大夫杖而謝賓。財少恃力，面垢作身。不言而事具者，故號哭盡情。

Why does one not speak during mourning? Longing has exhausted the feelings. Words are not elegant, which refers to ordinary scholars and commoners. Where the matter is accomplished without speaking, the ruler, ministers and senior officers lean on their staffs and thank the guests. Where wealth is scant, they rely on their strength, their faces are soiled, and they exert their bodies. Where everything is provided for without speaking, wailing and crying aloud pour out the feelings in full.

喪有病得飲酒食肉何？所以輔人生己，重先祖遺支體也。故《曲禮》曰：“居喪之禮，頭有瘡則沐，身有瘍則浴，有疾則飲酒食肉。五十不致毀，七十唯衰麻在身，飲酒食肉。”又曰：“父母有疾，食肉不至變味，飲酒不至變貌，笑不至矧，怒不至詈，琴瑟不御。”《曾子問》曰：“三年之喪，練不群立，不旅行，禮以飾情。三年之喪而吊哭，不亦虛乎！”《禮?檀弓》曰：“曾子有母之喪，吊子張。”子張者，朋友，有服，雖重服吊之，可也。《曾子問》曰：“小功可以與祭乎？孔子曰：‘斬衰已下，與祭，禮也。’”此謂君喪然也。子夏問：“三年之喪，既卒哭，金革之事無避者，禮與？”孔子曰：“吾聞諸老聃曰：‘周公伯禽，則有為之也。’今以三年之喪從其利者，吾不知也。”

Why may one drink wine and eat meat during mourning when ill? It is to help one's own life continue, out of regard for the limbs and body left by one's forebears. Therefore the Summary of the Rites says: "By the rules of mourning, if the head has a sore, wash it; if the body has a boil, bathe; if ill, drink wine and eat meat. At fifty one does not waste away from grief; at seventy one wears only the hemp garment on the body, and drinks wine and eats meat." It also says: "When a parent is ill, one eats meat but not so much that the flavor changes, drinks wine but not so much that the face changes, smiles but not so that the gums show, is angry but not so as to scold, and does not play the zither." The Zengzi Asks says: "In the mourning of three years, after the first anniversary one does not stand in groups or travel in company; the rites are used to adorn feeling. If one goes to offer condolences during the mourning of three years, is that not hollow?" The Tan Gong section of the Rites says: "Zengzi, while in mourning for his mother, went to offer condolences to Zizhang." Zizhang was a friend and he wore mourning for him, so even in heavy mourning dress it was acceptable to go and condole. The Zengzi Asks says: "May one in small-merit mourning take part in a sacrifice? Confucius said: 'One in the coarsest mourning or below may take part in a sacrifice; that is the rite.'" This speaks of the mourning for a ruler being like this. Zixia asked: "In the mourning of three years, once the final wailing is done, one does not avoid military affairs; is that the rite?" Confucius said: "I heard from Lao Dan: 'The Duke of Zhou and Bo Qin did it that way.' But as for those today who seek profit during the mourning of three years, I do not know about them."

婦人不出境吊者，婦人無外事，防淫佚也。《禮?雜記》曰：“婦人越︹而吊，非禮也。”而有三年喪，君與夫人俱往。禮，妻為父母服，夫亦當服。

A woman does not cross the border to offer condolences, because a woman has no affairs outside, and this guards against license. The Miscellaneous Records of the Rites says: "For a woman to cross over in mourning sash to offer condolences is not in accord with the rites." But where there is the mourning of three years, the ruler and his wife both go. By the rites, a wife wears mourning for her parents, and the husband should wear it too.

有不弔三何？為人臣子，常懷恐懼，深思遠慮，志乃全身。今乃畏、厭、溺死，用為不義，故不弔也。《檀弓》曰：“不弔三：畏、厭、溺也。畏者，兵死也。”《禮?曾子》記曰：“大辱加於身，支體毀傷，即君不臣，士不交，祭不得為昭穆之屍，食不得昭穆之牲，死不得葬昭穆之域也。”

Why are there three cases in which one does not offer condolences? One who serves as a subject is always fearful, and thinks deeply and far ahead, so that his will can keep his person safe. If he instead dies by fear, by crushing, or by drowning, this is regarded as not righteous, and so no condolences are offered. The Tan Gong says: "There are three cases of no condolence: fear, crushing and drowning. Fear means dying by arms." The Zengzi record in the Rites says: "If great disgrace is brought upon one's person and the limbs are damaged, then the ruler does not take him as a subject, scholars do not associate with him, at sacrifices he cannot serve as the impersonator in the zhao and mu order, at feasts he cannot use the sacrificial animals of the zhao and mu order, and in death he cannot be buried in the zhao and mu burial ground."

弟子為師服者，弟子有君臣、父子、朋友之道也。故生則尊敬而親之，死則哀痛之，恩深義重，故為之隆服，入則，出則否也。《檀弓》曰：“昔夫子之喪顏回，若喪子而無服。喪子路亦然。請喪夫子，若喪父而無服也。”

A disciple wears mourning for his teacher, because a disciple has the ways of ruler and subject, father and son, and friends. So in life he honors and is close to him, and at death he grieves; affection is deep and duty weighty, so he wears weighty mourning for him, putting on the sash when he goes in and not when he goes out. The Tan Gong says: "Long ago, when the Master mourned Yan Hui, he mourned as for a son but wore no mourning dress. He did the same for Zilu. When the disciples asked to mourn the Master, they mourned as for a father but wore no mourning dress."

《曾子問》曰：“‘君薨既殯，而臣有父母之喪，則如之何？’孔子曰：‘歸居於家。有殷事，則之君所，朝夕否。’曰：‘君既啟，而臣有父母之喪，則如之何？’孔子曰：‘歸哭而反送君。’曰：‘君未殯，而臣有父母之喪，則如之何？’孔子曰：‘歸殯哭而，反於君，殷事則歸，朝夕否。大夫室老行事，士則子孫行事。夫內子有殷事，則亦如之君所，朝夕否。’”

The Zengzi Asks says: "'If a ruler has died and been coffined, and a subject has the mourning of his parents, what then?' Confucius said: 'He goes back and stays at home. When there is a major rite he goes to the ruler, but not for the morning and evening ones.' He asked: 'If the ruler's coffin has been moved for burial, and a subject has the mourning of his parents, what then?' Confucius said: 'He goes back and wails, then returns to see the ruler off.' He asked: 'If the ruler has not yet been coffined, and a subject has the mourning of his parents, what then?' Confucius said: 'He goes back, coffins and wails, then returns to the ruler; at a major rite he goes back, but not for the morning and evening ones. A senior officer has his chief steward act for him; a scholar has his sons and grandsons act. His wife too goes to the ruler for a major rite, but not for the morning and evening ones.'"

諸侯有親喪，聞天子崩，奔喪者何？屈己，親親猶尊尊之義也。《春秋傳》曰：“天子記崩不記葬者，必其時葬也。諸侯記葬，不必有時。”諸侯為有天子喪奔，不得必以其時葬也。

When a feudal lord has a parent's mourning and hears that the Son of Heaven has died, why does he hasten to the mourning? He humbles himself, for loving one's kin is like the duty of honoring the honorable. The Spring and Autumn Annals commentary says: "For the Son of Heaven the Annals record his death but not his burial, because he is always buried on time. For a feudal lord they record the burial, because it need not be at a fixed time." Because a feudal lord hastens to the mourning for the Son of Heaven, his burial cannot always be on time.

大夫使，受命而出，聞父母之喪，非君命不反者，蓋重君也，故《春秋傳》曰：“大夫以君命出，聞喪，徐行不反。”

When a senior officer is sent on a mission, he goes out having received his orders; if he hears of his parent's mourning, he does not return unless the ruler commands it. This is probably out of regard for the ruler. Therefore the Spring and Autumn Annals commentary says: "A senior officer traveling on the ruler's command, on hearing of a death, goes slowly and does not turn back."

諸侯朝而有私喪，得還何？凶服不入公門，君不呼之義也。凶服不敢入公門者，明尊朝廷，吉凶不相干。故《周官》曰：“凶服不入公門。”《曲禮》曰：“居喪不言樂，祭事不言兇，公庭不言婦女。”《論語》曰：“子於是日哭，則不歌。”

When a feudal lord is at court and has a private mourning, why may he return? Mourning dress does not enter the public gate, which is the duty of the ruler not summoning him. Mourning dress does not dare enter the public gate, showing respect for the court, so that the auspicious and the ill-omened do not interfere with each other. Therefore the Rites of Zhou say: "Mourning dress does not enter the public gate." The Summary of the Rites says: "In mourning one does not speak of music, at sacrifices one does not speak of ill omens, and in the public court one does not speak of women." The Analects says: "On a day when the Master had wailed, he did not sing."

臣下有大喪，不呼其門者，使得終其孝道，成其大禮，《春秋傳》曰：“古者臣有大喪，君三年不呼其門。”

When a subject has a great mourning, the ruler does not call at his gate, so that he can complete the way of filial piety and fulfill the great rites. The Spring and Autumn Annals commentary says: "In ancient times, when a subject had a great mourning, the ruler did not call at his gate for three years."

聞哀哭而後行何？盡哀舒憤然後行。望國境則哭，過市朝則否。君子自抑，小人勉以及禮。見星則止，日行百里，惻怛之心，但欲見屍柩汲汲。故《禮?奔喪》記曰：“以哭答使者，盡哀，問故，遂行。”曾子曰：“師三十里者行五十里，奔喪百里。”既除喪，乃歸哭於墓何？明死者不可見，痛傷之至也。謂喪不得追服者也，哭於墓而已。故《禮?奔喪》記曰：“之墓，西向哭，止。”此謂遠出，歸後葬，喪服以禮除。

Why does one set out only after hearing the sound of wailing? One exhausts one's grief and relieves one's anger, and then departs. On seeing the border of the state one wails, but not on passing through the market or court. The gentleman restrains himself, while the lesser man strives to reach what the rites require. Seeing the stars one halts, and by day one travels a hundred li; with a heart of anguish, one longs only to see the corpse and coffin quickly. Therefore the record in the Rites on Hastening to Mourning says: "One answers the messenger with wailing, exhausts one's grief, asks the cause, and then proceeds." Zengzi said: "An army travels thirty li, but for hastening to mourning one goes fifty, even a hundred." Why, when the mourning period is already over, does one go back and wail at the grave? It shows that the dead can no longer be seen, and the pain and hurt are at their utmost. This speaks of mourning that cannot be made up afterward, so one only wails at the grave. Therefore the record in the Rites on Hastening to Mourning says: "On reaching the grave, wail facing west, then stop." This speaks of one who went far away and, having returned, the burial being done, takes off the mourning dress according to the rites.

曾子與客立於門，其徒趨而出。曾子曰：“爾將何之？”曰：“吾父死，將出哭於巷。”曾子曰：“反哭於爾次。”曾子北面而吊焉。《檀弓》記曰：“孔子曰：‘吾惡乎哭諸？兄弟，吾哭諸廟門之外；師，吾哭諸寢；朋友，吾哭諸寢門外；所知，吾哭諸野。’”

Zengzi was standing at the door with a guest when one of his disciples hurried out. Zengzi said: "Where are you going?" He said: "My father has died, and I am going out to wail in the lane." Zengzi said: "Go back and wail in your own dwelling." Zengzi faced north and offered condolences to him. The record in the Tan Gong says: "Confucius said: 'Where shall I wail? For a brother, I wail outside the temple gate; for a teacher, I wail in the chamber; for a friend, I wail outside the chamber gate; for an acquaintance, I wail in the open country.'"

養從生，葬從死，周公以王禮葬何？以為周公踐祚理政，與天同志，展興周道，顯天度數，萬物鹹得，休氣允塞，原天之意，予愛周公與文武無異，故以王禮葬，使得郊祭。《尚書》曰：“今天動威，以彰周公之德。”下言：“禮亦宜之。”

One nourishes in accord with life and buries in accord with death, so why was the Duke of Zhou buried with the rites of a king? It was held that the Duke of Zhou took up the throne and governed, shared the same will as Heaven, spread and revived the way of Zhou, and made clear Heaven's measures, so that all things found their place and an auspicious, fine qi filled the world. Tracing back Heaven's intention, Heaven bestowed love on the Duke of Zhou no differently than on Wen and Wu, so he was buried with the rites of a king and was allowed to perform the suburban sacrifice. The Book of Documents says: "Today Heaven stirs its awe, to make manifest the virtue of the Duke of Zhou." Below it says: "The rite is also fitting."

《書》曰：“成王崩。”天子稱崩何？別尊卑，異死生也。天子曰崩，大尊像，崩之為言，崩伏強天下，撫擊，失神明，黎庶殞涕，海內悲涼。諸侯曰薨，國失陽。薨之言奄也，奄然亡也。大夫曰卒，精耀終卒。卒之為言終於國也。士曰不祿，失其忠節，不忠終君之綠。綠之言消也，身消名彰。庶人曰死，魂去亡。死之為言澌，精氣窮也。崩、薨紀於國何？以為有尊卑之禮，諡號之制即有矣。禮始於黃帝，至舜堯而備。《易》言復者，據遂也。《書》殂落、死者矣，各自見義。堯皆僭痛之，舜見終，各一也。

The Book of Documents says: "King Cheng collapsed." Why is the death of the Son of Heaven called a collapse? It is to distinguish the honored from the lowly and to mark off death from life. The Son of Heaven's death is called a collapse because it is the image of the greatest honor; to collapse means to fall prostrate over all under Heaven, with blows and beating, the loss of spiritual brightness, the common people shedding tears, and sorrow within the seas. The death of a feudal lord is called a hong, for the state loses its yang; hong means to be suddenly gone, vanished in an instant. The death of a senior officer is called a zu, the bright essence ending; zu means to end in the state. The death of a scholar is called bu lu, for he loses loyalty and integrity and cannot loyally end his service with his emolument of the ruler. Lu means to melt away: the person melts away while the name shines. The death of a commoner is called si, the soul departing and lost. Si means to dry up, the vital essence exhausted. Why are the collapse and the hong recorded in the state annals? It is held that where there are the rites of honored and lowly, the system of posthumous titles already exists. The rites began with the Yellow Emperor and were completed by Shun and Yao. The Book of Changes speaks of returning, which relies on following through. The Book of Documents speaks of cu luo and si, each showing its own meaning. Yao showed the grief of even exceeding what was proper, and Shun was seen at his end, each a case of its own.

喪者，何謂也？喪者，亡。人死謂之喪何？言其亡，不可復得見也。不直言喪何？為孝子心不忍言。《尚書》曰：“武王既喪。”《喪終》曰：“死為室。”知據死者稱喪也，生者喪痛之亦稱喪。《禮》曰：“喪服斬衰。”《易》曰：“不封不樹，喪期無數。”《孝經》曰：“孝子之喪親也，是施生者也。”天子下至庶人，俱言喪何？欲言身體髮膚，俱受之父母，其痛一也。

What does sang, mourning, mean? Sang means to lose. Why is the death of a person called sang? It says that he is lost and can no longer be seen. Why does one not say "death" directly? Because the filial son cannot bear to say it in his heart. The Book of Documents says: "King Wu had already passed away." The Mourning's End says: "Dying is to go to the proper chamber." From this we know that sang is used according to the dead. The grief of the living is also called sang. The Rites say: "Mourning dress of the coarsest grade." The Book of Changes says: "They neither heaped a mound nor planted trees, and the period of mourning had no fixed number." The Classic of Filial Piety says: "As for the filial son's mourning for his parent, this is applied to the living." From the Son of Heaven down to the commoner, all say sang. Why? Because body, hair and skin are all received from one's parents, and the pain is the same.

天子崩，計告諸侯何？緣臣子喪君，哀痛憤懣，無能不告語人者也。諸侯欲聞之，又當持土地所出以供喪事，故《禮》曰：“天子崩，遣使者計諸侯。”

Why, when the Son of Heaven dies, is notice sent to the feudal lords? It accords with the way subjects, losing their ruler, are grieved and aggrieved and cannot but tell others. The feudal lords wish to hear of it, and should also supply what their lands produce for the funeral. Therefore the Rites say: "When the Son of Heaven collapses, he sends envoys to give notice to the feudal lords."

王者崩，諸侯悉奔喪何？臣子悲哀慟怛，莫不欲觀君父之棺柩，盡悲哀者也。又為天子守蕃，不可頓空也，故分為三部：有始死先奔者，有得中來盡其哀者，有得會喪奉送君者。七月之間，諸侯有在京師親供臣子之事者也，號泣悲哀奔走道路者，有居其國哭痛思慕，竭盡所供，以助喪事者。是四海之內鹹悲，臣下若喪考妣之義也。葬有會者，親疏遠近盡至，親親之義也。童諸侯不朝而來奔喪者何？明臣子於其君父，非有老少也，亦因喪質，無般旋之禮，但盡悲哀而已。

When the king dies, why do all the feudal lords hasten to the mourning? Subjects are grieved and anguished and all wish to see the coffin of their lord and father and exhaust their sorrow. But they also guard the borders for the Son of Heaven, who cannot be left suddenly empty, so they are divided into three groups: some hasten at once upon the death, some can arrive midway to exhaust their grief, and some can arrive in time for the funeral to escort their lord. During the seven months, some feudal lords personally perform a subject's service in the capital, weeping and grieving as they hurry along the roads, and some stay in their own states wailing and longing, bringing all they can supply to help with the funeral. This is the meaning that within the four seas all grieve, and subjects mourn as for a deceased father and mother. At the burial there is a gathering, and kin near and far all come, which is the meaning of loving one's kin. Why do young feudal lords who have not yet come to court nonetheless hasten to the mourning? It shows that, for subjects toward a lord and father, there is no young or old; and also that the mourning is plain, with no rite of lingering ceremony, only exhausting grief.

臣死亦赴告於君何？此君哀痛於臣子也，欲聞之加賻之禮。故《春秋》曰：“蔡侯考父卒。”《傳》曰：“卒赴而葬，禮也。”

Why, when a subject dies, is notice sent to the ruler? This is the rite in which the ruler grieves for his subject, wishes to hear of it, and adds a gift to help with the funeral. Therefore the Spring and Autumn Annals says: "Fu, Marquis of Cai, died." The commentary says: "That a death was announced and the burial held is according to the rite."

諸侯薨，赴告鄰國何？緣鄰國欲有禮也。《春秋傳》曰：“桓母喪，告於諸侯。”桓母賤尚告於諸侯，諸侯薨告鄰國，明矣。

Why, when a feudal lord dies, is notice sent to neighboring states? It accords with neighboring states wishing for the rites. The Spring and Autumn Annals commentary says: "When the mother of Duke Huan died, notice was given to the feudal lords." Since even the lowly mother of Duke Huan was announced to the feudal lords, it is clear that the death of a feudal lord is announced to neighboring states.

諸侯夫人薨，告天子者，不敢自廢政事，天子亦欲知之當有禮也。《春秋》曰：“天子使宰喧來歸惠公仲子之。”譏不及事。仲子者，魯君之貴妾也，何況於夫人乎？

When a feudal lord's wife dies, notice is sent to the Son of Heaven, for the lord dares not abandon affairs of government on his own, and the Son of Heaven also wishes to know and ought to observe the rites. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "The Son of Heaven sent the Grand Steward Xuan to bring the funeral gift for Zhongzi, mother of Duke Hui." It criticizes that it did not arrive in time for the event. Zhongzi was a noble concubine of the ruler of Lu, how much more so a wife.

諸侯薨，使臣歸瑞於天子何？諸侯以瑞為信，今死矣，嗣子諒暗三年之後，當乃更爵命，故歸之，推讓之義也。《禮》曰：“諸侯薨，使臣歸瑞於天子。”

When a feudal lord dies, why does he send a subject to return the jade tablet of investiture to the Son of Heaven? The feudal lord holds the jade tablet as his credential; now that he has died, the heir, after three years in the mourning hut, should again receive his rank and charge, so it is returned, which is the meaning of yielding. The Rites say: "When a feudal lord dies, he sends a subject to return the jade tablet to the Son of Heaven."

天子聞諸侯薨，哭之何？慘怛發中，哀痛之至也。使大夫吊之，追遠重終之義也。故《禮?檀弓》曰：“天子哭諸侯，爵弁，純衣。”又曰：“遣大夫弔詞曰：‘皇天降災，子遭離之難，嗚呼哀哉！大王使臣某吊。’”

When the Son of Heaven hears that a feudal lord has died, why does he wail for him? Anguish comes from within, and grief reaches its utmost. He sends a senior officer to offer condolences, which is the meaning of remembering the distant and honoring the end. Therefore the Tan Gong in the Rites says: "The Son of Heaven wails for a feudal lord, wearing the leather cap and plain robe." It also says: "The words of condolence of the officer he sends are: 'August Heaven has sent down disaster, and you have met with calamity. Alas, how sad! The great king has sent me, so-and-so, to offer condolences.'"

臣子死，君往吊之何？親與之共治民，恩深義重厚，欲躬見之。故《禮?雜記》曰：“君吊臣，主人待於門外，見馬首不哭。君至，主人先入，君升自阼階，西向哭。主人居中庭，從哭。”或曰：“大夫疾，君問之無數；士疾，二問之而大夫卒，比葬，不食肉；比卒哭不舉樂。士比殯，不舉樂。”玄冠不以吊者，不以吉服臨人兇，示助哀也。《論語》曰：“羔裘，玄冠不以吊。”

When a subject dies, why does the ruler go to offer condolences? He governed the people together with him in person, the affection was deep and the duty weighty, and he must see him himself. Therefore the Miscellaneous Records of the Rites says: "When the ruler offers condolences to a subject, the host waits outside the gate, and on seeing the horses' heads does not wail. When the ruler arrives, the host enters first, and the ruler ascends by the eastern steps and wails facing west. The host stands in the middle of the courtyard and wails after him." Someone says: "When a senior officer is ill, the ruler inquires after him without limit; when a scholar is ill, he inquires twice. When a senior officer dies, until the burial he does not eat meat, and until the end of the wailing he does not hold music. For a scholar, until the coffining he does not hold music." The black cap is not used for condolences, nor is auspicious dress used to face another's misfortune, which shows helping in grief. The Analects says: "Lambskin robes and the black cap are not worn to offer condolences."

崩薨三日乃小斂何？奪孝子之恩以漸也。一日之時，屬纊於口上，以候絕氣；二日之時，尚冀其生；三日之時，魂氣不返，終不可奈何。故《禮?士喪經》曰：“御者四人皆坐，持體屬纊，以候絕氣。”《禮》曰：“天子、諸侯，三日小斂；大夫、士二日小斂。”屬纊於口者，孝子欲生其親也。

Why is the small dressing done only on the third day after the death of a ruler? It gradually takes away from the filial son's affection. On the first day, a silk floss is placed over the mouth to wait for the last breath to cease; on the second day, one still hopes he may live; on the third day, the soul's breath has not returned, and in the end nothing more can be done. Therefore the Rites on the Burial of a Scholar say: "Four attendants all sit, holding the body and placing the floss, waiting for the last breath to cease." The Rites say: "For the Son of Heaven and feudal lords, the small dressing is on the third day; for senior officers and scholars, on the second day." Placing the floss over the mouth is because the filial son wishes to make his parent live.

人死必沐浴於中ニ何？示潔淨反本也《禮?檀弓》曰：“死於牖下，沐浴於中ニ，飯含於牖下，小斂於戶內，大斂於阼階，殯於客位，祖於庭，葬於墓，所以即遠也。”奪孝子之恩以漸也。所以有飯含何？緣生食今死不欲虛其口，故含。用珠寶物何也？有益死者形體，故天子飯以玉，諸侯以珠，大夫以米，士以貝也。

Why must a person who dies be bathed under the central eaves? It shows cleanliness and a return to the root. The Tan Gong in the Rites says: "He dies beneath the window, is bathed under the central eaves, has the rice and pearl placed in the mouth beneath the window, is given the small dressing inside the door, the great dressing on the eastern steps, is coffined in the guest's place, is sent to the ancestors in the courtyard, and is buried at the grave, so he gradually goes farther away." It gradually takes away from the filial son's affection. Why is there the placing of rice and pearl in the mouth? It accords with his eating in life, and now that he is dead one does not wish his mouth to be empty, so it is filled. Why are precious things used? They benefit the form of the dead. Therefore for the Son of Heaven jade is used, for feudal lords pearls, for senior officers rice, and for scholars shells.

贈礻遂，何謂也？贈之為言稱也，玩好曰贈；礻遂之為言遺也，衣被曰曰礻遂。知死者則贈礻遂，所以助生送死，追恩重終，副至意也。贈者，何謂也？贈者，助也也。所以相佐，給不足也。故弔詞曰：“知生則賻，貨財曰賻，車馬曰。”

What do zeng and sui mean? Zeng means to match, for playthings are called zeng; sui means to bequeath, for clothes and bedding are called sui. When one knows the dead, one gives zeng and sui, to help the living send off the dead, to follow affection and honor the end, in accord with the utmost intention. What do zeng and feng mean? Zeng means to help. They are used to assist one another and supply what is lacking. So the words of condolence say: "When one knows the living, one gives fu; goods and wealth are called fu, and carriages and horses are called feng."

天子七日而殯，諸侯五日而殯何？事有大小，所供者不等，故《王制》曰：“天子七日而殯，諸侯五日而殯，卿大夫三日而殯。”

Why does the Son of Heaven have the coffining on the seventh day and a feudal lord on the fifth? Affairs differ in scale and what must be supplied is not equal. Therefore the Royal Regulations say: "The Son of Heaven is coffined on the seventh day, a feudal lord on the fifth day, and a minister or senior officer on the third day."

夏后氏殯於阼階，殷人殯於兩楹之間，周人殯於西階之上何？夏后氏教以忠，忠者厚也，曰生吾親也，死亦吾親也，主人宜在阼階。殷人教以敬，曰死者將去，又不敢客也，故置之兩楹之間，周人共夾而敬之。周人教以文，曰死者將去，不可又得，故賓客之也。《檀弓》記曰：“夏后氏殯於阼階，殷人殯於兩楹之間，周人殯於西階。”

The lord of Xia coffined at the eastern steps, the Yin people coffined between the two pillars, and the Zhou people coffined above the western steps. Why? The lord of Xia taught through loyalty, and loyalty means generosity: it said that in life he was my kin, and in death he is still my kin, so the host should stand at the eastern steps. The Yin people taught through reverence, and said that the dead was about to depart and one dared not treat him as a guest, so the coffin was placed between the two pillars, where the Zhou people jointly honored him on both sides. The Zhou people taught through refinement, and said that the dead was about to depart and could not be had again, so he was treated as a guest. The record in the Tan Gong says: "The lord of Xia coffined at the eastern steps, the Yin people between the two pillars, and the Zhou people at the western steps."

《稽命徵》曰：“天子舟車殯何？為避水火災也。故棺在車上，車在舟中。”臣子更執紼，晝夜常百二十二人。紼者，所以掌持棺也。故《禮》曰：“天子舟車殯，諸侯車殯，大夫攢塗，士瘞。”尊卑之差也。

The Verification of the Mandate says: "The Son of Heaven is coffined with boat and carriage. Why? To avoid the disasters of water and fire. So the coffin is on the carriage and the carriage is inside the boat." The subjects take turns holding the funeral ropes, with always one hundred and twenty-two men day and night. The ropes are used to hold the coffin. Therefore the Rites say: "The Son of Heaven is coffined with boat and carriage, a feudal lord with a carriage, a senior officer is plastered over with mud, and a scholar is buried in the earth." This is the difference between the honored and the lowly.

祖於庭何？盡孝子之恩也。祖者，始也，始載於庭也。乘軸車辭祖禰，故名為祖載也。《禮》曰：“祖於庭，葬於墓。”又曰：“適祖，升自西階。”

Why is there the sending to the ancestors in the courtyard? It fulfills the filial son's devotion. Zu means to begin, and the coffin is first loaded in the courtyard. He mounts the bier-carriage to take leave of the ancestors and father's shrine, so it is called the ancestral loading. The Rites say: "Take leave of the ancestors in the courtyard, and bury at the grave." It also says: "Going to the ancestral shrine, one ascends by the western steps."

所以有棺槨何？所以掩藏形惡也，不欲令孝子見其毀壞也。棺之為言之貌，所以藏屍令貌全也；槨之為言廓，所以開廓闢土無令迫棺也。《禮?王制》曰：“天子棺槨九重，衣衾百二十稱於領；大度曰：“公侯五重，衣衾九十稱；士再重。”禮曰：“大夫有大棺三重，衣衾五十稱；士無大棺二重，衣衾三十稱。單備為一稱。”《禮?檀弓》曰：“天子棺四重，水光革棺被之，其厚三寸。地棺一，梓棺二，柏槨以端，長六尺。”

Why are there inner and outer coffins? They are used to conceal the ugliness of the form, for one does not wish the filial son to see it decay. Guan, the coffin, means appearance: it is used to hide the corpse and keep its appearance whole. Guo, the outer coffin, means enclosure: it is used to open up an enclosure and push back the earth so the earth does not press close upon the coffin. The Royal Regulations in the Rites say: "For the Son of Heaven there are nine layers of inner and outer coffins, and one hundred and twenty sets of clothing and coverlets at the collar; the Great Measures says: for dukes and marquises, five layers and ninety sets; for scholars, two layers." The Rites say: "A senior officer has a great coffin of three layers and fifty sets of clothing and coverlets; a scholar has no great coffin but two layers and thirty sets. A single coverlet with its complete set counts as one set." The Tan Gong in the Rites says: "The Son of Heaven's coffin has four layers, covered with rhinoceros hide, three inches thick. There is one coffin of yi wood, two of catalpa, and the outer coffin of cypress is made with the ends set in, six feet long."

有虞氏瓦棺，今以木何？虞尚質，故用瓦。夏后氏益文，故易之以┾周，謂┾木相周，無膠漆之周也。殷人棺槨有膠漆之用。周人浸文，牆置た，加巧飾。喪葬之禮，緣生以事死，生時無，死亦不敢造。太古之時，穴居野處，夜皮帶革，故死衣之以薪，內藏不飾。中古之時，有宮室、衣服，故衣之幣帛，藏以棺槨，封樹識表，體以象生。夏殷彌文，齊之以器械。至周大文，緣夫婦生時同室，死同葬之。

The lord of Yougu used a clay coffin; why is wood used now? Yu honored plainness, so he used clay. The lord of Xia was more refined, so he changed to the encircling coffin, which means that the timbers surround one another, without the encirclement of glue and lacquer. The Yin people's coffins and outer coffins used glue and lacquer. The Zhou people grew more refined still, setting up feathered screens on the wall and adding skillful decoration. The rites of mourning and burial serve the dead by following life: what did not exist in life, one dares not make for the dead. In remote antiquity people lived in caves and dwelt in the wilds, and at night wore belts of hide, so the dead were clothed in firewood and buried inside without decoration. In middle antiquity there were houses and clothing, so the dead were clothed in silks, placed in coffins and outer coffins, and a mound and trees were set as markers, the body being used to resemble the living. Xia and Yin grew more refined and used vessels and implements to set things in order. By Zhou the refinement was great, and, following the way husband and wife live in one room in life, they were buried together in death.

屍柩者，何謂也？屍之為言失也，陳也，失氣亡神，形體獨陳；柩之為言究也，久也，不復章也。《曲禮》曰：“在床曰屍，在棺曰柩。”

What do shi and jiu mean? Shi means to lose, and also to lay out: the qi is lost and the spirit gone, and the form alone is laid out. Jiu means to exhaust, and also long: it will not shine forth again. The Summary of the Rites says: "On the bed it is called shi; in the coffin it is called jiu."

崩、薨別號，至墓同，何也？時臣子藏其君父，安厝之義，貴賤同。葬之為言下藏之也。所以入地何？人生於陰，含陽光，死始入地，歸所與也。天子七月而葬，諸侯五月而葬何？尊卑有差也。天子七月而葬，同軌必至；諸侯五月而葬，同會必至，所以慎終重喪也。

The collapse of a king and the hong of a feudal lord are named differently, yet at the grave they are the same; why? At that time subjects were burying their lord and father, and in the meaning of laying him to rest, the honored and the lowly are alike. Burial means to store downward. Why does one enter the earth? A person is born of yin and holds the sunlight within, and only at death enters the earth, returning to where he belongs. The Son of Heaven is buried in the seventh month and a feudal lord in the fifth month; why? Honored and lowly differ. The Son of Heaven is buried in the seventh month so that all of the same axle-gauge will surely arrive; a feudal lord is buried in the fifth month so that all of the same covenant will surely arrive, which is to be careful at the end and to take mourning seriously.

《禮》曰：“冢人奉圖。先君之葬，君居以中，昭、穆為左右，群臣從葬，以貴賤序。”

The Rites say: "The keeper of the tombs presents the upper plan. In the burial of a former ruler, the ruler lies in the middle, the zhao and mu rows are on the left and right, and the ministers are buried following him, arranged in order of rank."

合葬者何？所以固夫婦之道也。故《詩》曰：“谷則異室，死則同穴。”又《禮?檀弓》曰：“合葬，非古也，自周公已來未之有改也。”

Why is there joint burial? It is used to strengthen the way of husband and wife. Therefore the Book of Songs says: "In life we had separate rooms; in death we shall share one grave." And the Tan Gong in the Rites says: "Joint burial is not ancient; since the Duke of Zhou it has not been changed."

葬於城郭外何？死生別處，終始異居。《易》曰：“葬之中野。”所以絕孝子之思慕也。《傳》曰：“作樂於廟，不聞於墓；哭泣於墓，不聞於廟。”所以於北方何？就陰也。《檀弓》曰：“孔子卒，所以受魯君之璜玉葬魯城北。”又曰“於邑北北首，三代之達禮也。”

Why is burial outside the city walls? The dead and the living dwell apart, and the end and the beginning do not share a home. The Book of Changes says: "They buried them in the middle of the wilds." It is used to cut off the filial son's longing. The commentary says: "When music is played in the temple, it cannot be heard at the grave; when there is weeping at the grave, it cannot be heard in the temple." Why is it to the north? It follows the yin. The Tan Gong says: "When Confucius died, he received the jade huang of the ruler of Lu and was buried north of the city of Lu." It also says: "North of the town, with the head toward the north, was the rite commonly practiced in all three dynasties."

封、樹者，所以為識。故《檀弓》曰：“古也墓而不墳，今邱也。東西南北之人也，不可以不識也。於是封之，崇曰尺。”春秋《含文嘉》曰：“天子墳高三仞，樹以松；諸侯半之，樹以柏；大夫八尺，樹以欒；士四尺，樹以槐；庶人無墳，樹以楊柳。”

The mound and the trees are used as markers. Therefore the Tan Gong says: "In ancient times there were graves but no mounds. Now I, Qiu, am a man of the east, west, south and north, and cannot be without a marker. So I will raise a mound for it, one ren high." The Spring and Autumn Annals Han Wen Jia says: "The Son of Heaven's mound is three ren high, and pine is planted; a feudal lord's is half that, with cypress; a senior officer's is eight feet, with the luan tree; a scholar's is four feet, with the locust; a commoner has no mound, and willow is planted."