Chun Qiu Fan Lu (春秋繁露)

“楚莊王殺陳夏徵舒，春秋貶其文，不予專討也；靈王殺齊慶封，而直稱楚子，何也？”曰：“莊王之行賢，而徵舒之罪重，以賢君討重罪，其於人心善，若不貶，庸知其非正經，春秋常於其嫌得者，見其不得也。是故齊桓不予專地而封，晉文不予致王而朝，楚莊弗予專殺而討，三者不得，則諸侯之得，殆此矣，此楚靈之所以稱子而討也。春秋之辭多所況，是文約而法明也。”問者曰：“不予諸侯之專封，復見於陳蔡之滅；不予諸侯之專討，獨不復見慶封之殺，何也？”曰：“春秋之用辭，已明者去之，未明者著之。今諸侯之不得專討，固已明矣，而慶封之罪，未有所見也，故稱楚子，以伯討之，著其罪之宜死，以為天下大禁，曰：人臣之行，貶主之位，亂國之臣，雖不篡殺，其罪皆宜死。比於此，其云爾也。”“春秋曰：‘晉伐鮮虞。’奚惡乎晉，而同夷狄也？”曰：“春秋尊禮而重信，信重於地，禮尊於身。何以知其然也？宋伯姬疑禮而死於火，齊桓公疑信而虧其地，春秋賢而舉之，以為天下法。曰禮而信，禮無不答，施無不報，天之數也。今我君臣同姓適女，女無良心，禮以不答，有恐畏我，何其不夷狄也！公子慶父之亂，魯危殆亡，而齊桓安之，於彼無親，尚來憂我，如何與同姓而殘賊遇我。詩云：‘宛彼鳴鳩，翰飛戾天。我心憂傷，念彼先人。明發不昧，有懷二人。’人皆有此心也。今晉不以同姓憂我，而強大厭我，我心望焉，故言之不好，謂之晉而已，婉辭也。”問者曰：“晉惡而不可親，公往而不敢至，乃人情耳，君子何恥，而稱公有疾也？”曰：“惡無故自來，君子不恥，內省不疚，何憂於志是已矣。今春秋恥之者，昭公有以取之也。臣陵其君，始於文而甚於昭，公受亂陵夷，而無懼惕之心，囂囂然輕計妄討，犯大禮而取同姓，接不義而重自輕也。

"King Zhuang of Chu killed Xia Zhengshu of Chen, and the Spring and Autumn Annals disparages the wording, not granting him the title of one who punishes on his own authority; yet when King Ling killed Qing Feng of Qi, it directly calls him the Viscount of Chu. Why?" The answer: "King Zhuang's conduct was worthy and Zhengshu's crime was grave; using a worthy ruler to punish a grave crime is good in people's hearts. If it did not disparage him, how would one know that this was not the proper way? The Spring and Autumn often shows the impropriety in the very places where something seems proper. Thus it did not grant Duke Huan of Qi the title of enfeoffing on his own authority, did not grant Duke Wen of Jin the title of summoning the Son of Heaven to court, and did not grant Zhuang of Chu the title of killing and punishing on his own authority. If these three are denied, then what the lords may rightly do probably ends there. This is why it calls King Ling of Chu 'Viscount' and records him as punishing." The wording of the Spring and Autumn uses many comparisons, so the text is concise and the rule clear. The questioner said, "The refusal to grant lords the title of enfeoffing on their own authority is also seen in the destruction of Chen and Cai; but the refusal to grant lords the title of punishing on their own authority does not appear again in the killing of Qing Feng. Why?" The answer: "In its wording the Spring and Autumn removes what is already clear and brings out what is not yet clear. Now that lords cannot punish on their own authority was already clear, but Qing Feng's crime had not yet appeared, so it calls him the Viscount of Chu, punishing as a hegemon, to bring out that his crime deserved death, as a great prohibition for the world, saying: the conduct of a minister who disparages the ruler's position and throws the state into disorder deserves death even if he does not usurp or murder. Comparing to this, that is all." "The Spring and Autumn says: 'Jin attacked Xianyu.' Why does it hate Jin and treat it as barbarian?" The answer: "The Spring and Autumn honors ritual and values good faith. Good faith is weightier than land, and ritual is more honorable than one's own person. How do we know? Bo Ji of Song hesitated over ritual and died in a fire; Duke Huan of Qi hesitated over good faith and lost land. The Spring and Autumn praises and cites them as a rule for the world. Speaking of ritual and good faith: with ritual there is nothing that goes unanswered, and with a favor there is nothing that goes unrepaid; this is the number of Heaven. Now my ruler and ministers came to you as people of the same surname, and you have no conscience, do not answer ritual with ritual, and moreover fear me; how are you not barbarian! Prince Qingfu made disorder, and Lu was in danger and almost destroyed, but Duke Huan of Qi pacified it; he had no kinship there yet still worried about me. How can one who shares my surname treat me with cruelty? The Book of Songs says: 'Fluttering is that cooing dove, soaring on its wings to the sky. My heart is sad and wounded, thinking of those who went before. Awake till dawn without sleeping, I think of the two.' All people have this feeling. Now Jin does not worry about me because of our shared surname but oppresses me by its strength. In my heart I resent it, so I do not speak kindly and merely call it 'Jin'; this is veiled wording." The questioner said, "Jin was bad and unapproachable, and when the duke set out but did not dare to arrive, that was merely human feeling; what is shameful in that for a gentleman, that it says the duke was ill?" The answer: "If evil comes of itself without cause, the gentleman is not ashamed; if on self-examination there is no fault, what is there to worry about in that? That is how it is. Now that the Spring and Autumn treats it as shameful, it is because Duke Zhao himself had ways of drawing it on. Ministers have been overriding rulers since Duke Wen and it was worse under Duke Zhao; the duke received disorder and decline without any fear or caution, loudly and carelessly deliberating and rashly attacking, offending against great ritual by marrying one of the same surname, associating with the unrighteous and thereby making himself even more contemptible."

人之言曰：‘國家治則四鄰賀，國家亂則四鄰散。’是故季孫專其位，而大國莫之正，出走八年，死乃得歸，身亡子危，困之至也。君子不恥其困，而恥其所以窮。昭公雖逢此時，苟不取同姓，詎至於是；雖取同姓，能用孔子自輔，亦不至如是。時難而治簡，行枉而無救，是其所以窮也。”

A saying of the people goes: "When a state is well governed, the four neighbors congratulate it; when a state is in disorder, the four neighbors scatter." Therefore Ji Sun held the position on his own, no great state came to set it right, and the duke fled for eight years and returned only in death, his body dead and his son in danger, an extreme of distress. The gentleman is not ashamed of hardship but of the reasons for his poverty. Even if Duke Zhao had met this time, if he had not married one of the same surname, how would it have come to this; even if he had married one of the same surname, if he had used Confucius to assist him, it would not have been like this. The times were hard and his governing was careless, his conduct crooked and without rescue; this is why he ended in poverty.

春秋分十二世以為三等：有見、有聞、有傳聞。有見三世，有聞四世，有傳聞五世。故哀、定、昭，君子之所見也，襄、成、文、宣，君子之所聞也，僖、閔、莊、桓、隱，君子之所傳聞也。所見六十一年，所聞八十五年，所傳聞九十六年。於所見，微其辭，於所聞，痛其禍，於傳聞，殺其恩，與情俱也。是故逐季氏，而言又雩，微其辭也；子赤殺，弗忍書日，痛其禍也；子般殺，而書乙未，殺其恩也。屈伸之志，詳略之文，皆應之，吾以其近近而遠遠、親親而疏疏也，亦知其貴貴而賤賤、重重而輕輕也，有知其厚厚而薄薄、善善而惡惡也，有知其陽陽而陰陰、白白而黑黑也。百物皆有合偶，偶之合之，仇之匹之，善矣。詩云：‘威儀抑抑，德音秩秩，無怨無惡，率由仇匹。’此之謂也。然則春秋義之大者也，得一端而博達之，觀其是非，可以得其正法，視其溫辭，可以知其塞怨，是故於外道而不顯，於內諱而不隱，於尊亦然，於賢亦然，此其別內外、差賢不肖、而等尊卑也。義不訕上，智不危身，故遠者以義諱，近者以智畏，畏與義兼，則世逾近，而言逾謹矣，此定、哀之所以微其辭。以故用則天下平，不用則安其身，春秋之道也。

The Spring and Autumn divides the twelve generations into three grades: what was seen, what was heard, and what was transmitted. There are three generations that were seen, four that were heard, and five that were transmitted. So Ai, Ding and Zhao are those the gentleman saw; Xiang, Cheng, Wen and Xuan are those the gentleman heard; Xi, Min, Zhuang, Huan and Yin are those the gentleman received by hearsay. What was seen covers sixty-one years, what was heard eighty-five years, and what was transmitted ninety-six years. For what was seen, the wording is veiled; for what was heard, the disaster is lamented; for what was transmitted, the kindness is reduced, in keeping with feeling. Thus the expulsion of the Ji clan is described as another rain sacrifice, which is veiled wording; Zichi was killed and the day is not written because it could not be borne, which laments the disaster; Zi Ban was killed but the day yiwei is written, which reduces the kindness. The aim of bending and extending, and the text of detail and brevity, all correspond to this. From its drawing near to the near and distance to the distant, its closeness to the close and remoteness to the remote, I also know that it honors the honorable and humbles the humble, weighs the weighty and lightens the light; I also know that it makes generous what is generous and thin what is thin, approves the good and hates the evil; I also know that it makes yang yang and yin yin, white white and black black. All things have their pairs, and matching and joining them as mates and partners is good. The Book of Songs says: 'Dignified and composed, with a harmonious reputation, without resentment or hate, follow your mates and partners.' This is what it means. So the meaning of the Spring and Autumn is great; get hold of one end and you can extend it broadly, look at its rights and wrongs and you can find the correct law, look at its gentle words and you can know how to block resentment. Thus it speaks outward without exposing, avoids mentioning within without concealing, and does so for the honorable and likewise for the worthy; this distinguishes inside and outside, grades the worthy and unworthy, and ranks the honored and humble. Righteousness does not slander superiors, and wisdom does not endanger oneself, so for the distant it uses righteousness to avoid speaking, and for the near it uses wisdom to fear; fear and righteousness exist together, so the nearer the age, the more cautious the words, and this is why the wording under Ding and Ai is veiled. Therefore, if it is used, the world is at peace; if not used, one keeps oneself safe. This is the Way of the Spring and Autumn.

春秋之道，奉天而法古。是故雖有巧手，弗修規矩，不能正方圓；雖有察耳，不吹六律，不能定五音；雖有知心，不覽先王，不能平天下；然則先王之遺道，亦天下之規矩六律已！故聖者法天，賢者法聖，此其大數也；得大數而治，失大數而亂，此治亂之分也；所聞天下無二道，故聖人異治同理也，古今通達，故先賢傳其法於後世也。春秋之於世事也，善復古，譏易常，欲其法先王也。然而介以一言曰：“王者必改制。”自僻者得此以為辭，曰：“古苟可循，先王之道，何莫相因。”世迷是聞，以疑正道而信邪言，甚可患也。答之曰：“人有聞諸侯之君射狸首之樂者，於是自斷狸首，縣而射之，曰：‘安在於樂也？’此聞其名，而不知其實者也。今所謂新王必改制者，非改其道，非變其理，受命於天，易姓更王，非繼前王而王也，若一因前制，修故業，而無有所改，是與繼前王而王者無以別。受命之君，天之所大顯也；事父者承意，事君者儀志，事天亦然；今天大顯已，物襲所代，而率與同，則不顯不明，非天志，故必徒居處，更稱號，改正朔，易服色者，無他焉，不敢不順天志，而明自顯也。若夫大綱，人倫道理，政治教化，習俗文義盡如故，亦何改哉！故王者有改制之名，無易道之實。孔子曰：‘無為而治者，其舜乎！’言其王堯之道而已，此非不易之效與！”問者曰：“物改而天授，顯矣，其必更作樂，何也？”曰：“樂異乎是，製為應天改之，樂為應人作之，彼之所受命者，必民之所同樂也。是故大改制於初，所以明天命也；更作樂於終，所以見天功也；緣天下之所新樂，而為之文，且以和政，且以興德，天下未遍合和，王者不虛作樂，樂者，盈於內而動發於外者也，應其治時，制禮作樂以成之，成者本末質文，皆以具矣。是故作樂者，必反天下之所始樂於己以為本。

The Way of the Spring and Autumn is to serve Heaven and take the ancients as the model. So even with skilled hands, if one does not maintain the compass and square, one cannot make round or square properly; even with keen ears, if one does not blow the six pitch pipes, one cannot fix the five notes; even with a wise mind, if one does not study the former kings, one cannot bring peace to the world. Then the Way left behind by the former kings is the world's compass and square and six pitch pipes! So the sage takes Heaven as his model, the worthy takes the sage as his model, and this is the great number. Obtaining the great number brings order, and losing it brings disorder; this is the distinction between order and disorder. I have heard that there are not two Ways under Heaven; so the sages governed differently but their principle was the same, and being through ancient and modern, the earlier worthies passed their laws on to later ages. The Spring and Autumn in worldly affairs likes returning to antiquity and criticizes changing the constant rules, wanting it to model itself on the former kings. Yet it inserts one remark: 'A true king must reform the institutions.' Someone from a remote place gets hold of this remark as an excuse and says, 'If antiquity could be followed, why did the Way of the former kings not follow each other?' The people of the age are misled by this report, and therefore doubt the right Way and believe wicked words, which is a worrying thing. The answer: Someone heard that the lords of old shot at the music of 'Lishou'; so he cut off a wild cat's head and hung it up to shoot at it, saying 'What has this to do with music?' This is hearing the name and not knowing the reality. Now when it is said that a new king must reform the institutions, it does not mean changing the Way or altering the principle. When one receives the mandate from Heaven and a new surname replaces the old and becomes king, one is not continuing the former king and calling oneself king. If one followed the former institutions entirely, repaired the old enterprise without any changes, there would be no difference from continuing the former king and calling oneself king. The ruler who receives the mandate is greatly manifested by Heaven; one who serves his father takes his intention, one who serves his lord takes his will as model, and so it is also in serving Heaven. Now Heaven greatly manifests itself, yet if things follow those they replace and are entirely the same, it is not manifest and not clear, and not the will of Heaven. So there must be a move of residence, a change of title, a reform of the calendar, and a change of clothing and colors, and nothing else: it is that one dares not fail to follow Heaven's will and so makes oneself manifest. As for the great outline, human relationships, political teaching, customs and cultural meaning, all stay as before; what would there be to change! So a true king has the name of reforming institutions but not the reality of changing the Way. Confucius said, 'One who ruled by non-action was probably Shun!' This means that when he became king he simply used the Way of Yao, and is this not proof that it does not change? The questioner said, "Things change and Heaven bestows; this is already clear. Why must new music be composed as well?" The answer: Music differs from this. Institutions are changed to respond to Heaven, and music is composed to respond to people. The mandate he received must be something the people share in rejoicing. So the beginning of great reform is to make Heaven's mandate clear, and the end of composing new music is to display Heaven's achievement; following what the world newly rejoices in, one makes a composition for it, which both harmonizes government and stirs up virtue. If the world is not yet generally in harmony, a true king does not compose music in vain. Music is filled within and moves outward; in response to that time of order, rites are made and music is composed to complete it. When complete, root and branch, substance and form are all present. So one who composes music must return to what the world originally rejoiced in because of him as the root.

舜時，民樂其昭堯之業也，故韶，韶者，昭也；禹之時，民樂其三聖相繼，故夏，夏者，大也；湯之時，民樂其救之於患害也，故頀，頀者，救也；文王之時，民樂其興師征伐也，故武，武者，伐也。四者天下同樂之，一也，其所同樂之端，不可一也。作樂之法，必反本之所樂，所樂不同事，樂安得不世異！是故舜作韶而禹作夏，湯作頀而文王作武，四樂殊名，則各順其民始樂於己也，吾見其效矣。詩云：‘文王受命，有此武功；既伐於崇，作邑於豐。’樂之風也。又曰：‘王赫斯怒，爰整其旅。’當是時，紂為無道，諸侯大亂，民樂文王之怒，而歌詠之也。周人德已洽天下，反本以為樂，謂之大武，言民所始樂者，武也云爾。故凡樂者，作之於終，而名之以始，重本之義也。由此觀之，正朔服色之改，受命應天，制禮作樂之異，人心之動也，二者離而複合，所為一也。”

In the time of Shun, the people rejoiced that he illuminated the work of Yao, so it was called Shao, and Shao means illuminating; in the time of Yu, the people rejoiced in the succession of three sages, so it was called Xia, and Xia means great; in the time of Tang, the people rejoiced at being rescued from calamity, so it was called Hu, and Hu means rescue; in the time of King Wen, the people rejoiced in the raising of troops to campaign, so it was called Wu, and Wu means attack. In all four the world rejoiced alike, which is one thing; but the cause of rejoicing alike cannot be one. The rule for composing music is to return to what was originally rejoiced in, and since what was rejoiced in differed, how could the music not differ from age to age! So Shun composed Shao and Yu composed Xia, Tang composed Hu and King Wen composed Wu; the four musics have different names, each following what the people originally rejoiced in because of him. I have seen the evidence. The Book of Songs says: 'King Wen received the mandate and had this martial achievement; having attacked Chong, he built a city at Feng.' This is the transforming influence of music. It also says: 'The king flared in anger, and then he marshaled his army.' At that time Zhou was without the Way and the lords were in great disorder, and the people rejoiced at King Wen's anger and so sang it. The virtue of the people of Zhou had already spread throughout the world, and returning to what was originally done to compose music, it was called Great Wu, meaning that what the people originally rejoiced in was martial achievement, and that is all. So in all music, it is composed at the end but named for the beginning, which is the meaning of valuing the root. Seen this way, the changes of calendar and colors are receiving the mandate and answering Heaven, and the differences in making rites and composing music are the stirring of human hearts. The two are separate and yet unite, and what they do is one.

春秋譏文公以喪取。難者曰：“喪之法，不過三年，三年之喪，二十五月。今按經：文公乃四十一月方取，取時無喪，出其法也久矣，何以謂之喪取？”曰：“春秋之論事，莫重於志。今取必納幣，納幣之月在喪分，故謂之喪取也。且文公秋祫祭，以冬納幣，皆失於太蚤，春秋不譏其前，而顧譏其後，必以三年之喪，肌膚之情也，雖從俗而不能終，猶宜未平於心，今全無悼遠之志，反思念取事，是春秋之所甚疾也，故譏不出三年，於首而已譏以喪取也，不別先後，賤其無人心也。緣此以論禮，禮之所重者，在其志，志敬而節具，則君子予之知禮；志和而音雅，則君子予之知樂；誌哀而居約，則君子予之知喪。故曰非虛加之，重志之謂也。志為質，物為文，文著於質，質不居文，文安施質；質文兩備，然後其禮成；文質偏行，不得有我爾之名；俱不能備，而偏行之，寧有質而無文，雖弗予能禮，尚少善之，介葛盧來是也；有文無質，非直不予，乃少惡之，謂州公寔來是也。然則春秋之序道也，先質而後文，右志而左物，故曰：‘禮雲禮云，玉帛云乎哉！’推而前之，亦宜曰：朝雲朝云，辭令云乎哉！‘樂雲樂云，鐘鼓云乎哉！’引而後之，亦宜曰：喪雲喪云，衣服云乎哉！是故孔子立新王之道，明其貴志以反和，見其好誠以滅偽，其有繼周之弊，故若此也。

The Spring and Autumn criticizes Duke Wen for taking a wife during mourning. The critic said, "The rule for mourning does not exceed three years, and the three-year mourning is twenty-five months. Now by the Classic, Duke Wen married only in the forty-first month; at the time of marrying there was no mourning, and he had already exceeded that rule for a long time. Why is it called marrying during mourning?" The answer: "In discussing affairs, the Spring and Autumn gives nothing more weight than intention. Now to marry one must give betrothal gifts, and the month of giving the gifts was still within the mourning period, so it is called marrying in mourning. Moreover, Duke Wen held the combined sacrifice in autumn and gave the betrothal gifts in winter, both of which were too early; the Spring and Autumn does not criticize the earlier but criticizes the later, because the three-year mourning is a matter of feeling in the flesh and skin, and even if one follows custom and cannot complete it, the heart should still be unsettled. Now he had no thought of grieving for the distant dead at all but thought instead of marrying, which the Spring and Autumn deeply hates. So it criticizes him not only after three years, but at the beginning it already criticizes marrying in mourning, without distinguishing before and after, to despise his lack of human feeling. Discussing ritual in this light: what ritual values is intention. When intention is reverent and the forms are complete, the gentleman grants that he knows ritual; when intention is harmonious and the sound elegant, the gentleman grants that he knows music; when intention is grieving and one's dwelling is simple, the gentleman grants that he knows mourning. So it is not said to add emptily but is a statement that values intention. Intention is substance and things are form. Form attaches to substance; if substance does not stay put, how can form be applied to substance? Only when substance and form are both present is ritual accomplished; if form and substance go separately, one cannot have the name 'we.' If both cannot be complete and one must go separately, it is better to have substance without form. Even if one is not granted knowing ritual, he is treated a little kindly, as in the case of Ge Lu coming; to have form without substance is not only not granted but slightly disliked, as in the case of the Duke of Zhou truly coming. So the Spring and Autumn orders the Way with substance first and form after, intention on the right and things on the left. Hence it is said, 'Ritual, ritual, do they mean jade and silk?' Pushed forward, it should also be said: court, court, does it mean speech and words? 'Music, music, do they mean bells and drums?' Pulled backward, it should also be said: mourning, mourning, does it mean clothes? So Confucius set up the Way of the new king, showing that he valued intention in order to return to harmony and showed his love of sincerity in order to extinguish falsehood. That is because there was the corruption of those who succeeded Zhou, so he was like this."

春秋之法：以人隨君，以君隨天。曰：緣民臣之心，不可一日無君，一日不可無君，而猶三年稱子者，為君心之未當立也，此非以人隨君耶！孝子之心，三年不當，而踰年即位者，與天數俱終始也，此非以君隨天邪！故屈民而伸君，屈君而伸天，春秋之大義也。

The rule of the Spring and Autumn: let people follow the ruler, and let the ruler follow Heaven. It says: following the hearts of the people and ministers, one cannot be without a ruler even for a day. One cannot be without a ruler for a day, yet for three years the successor is still called 'son,' because the ruler's heart is not yet right to take the throne; is this not people following the ruler! The heart of a filial son does not feel right for three years, yet he takes the throne after the year turns, in step with the number of Heaven from beginning to end; is this not the ruler following Heaven! So bending the people to extend the ruler and bending the ruler to extend Heaven is the great meaning of the Spring and Autumn.

春秋論十二世之事，人道浹而王道備，法布二百四十二年之中，相為左右，以成文采，其居參錯，非襲古也。是故論春秋者，合而通之，緣而求之，五其比，偶其類，覽其緒，屠其贅，是以人道浹而王法立。以為不然，今夫天子踰年即位，諸侯於封內三年稱子，皆不在經也，而操之與在經無以異，非無其辨也，有所見而經安受其贅也，故能以比貫類，以辨付贅者，大得之矣。

In discussing affairs of the twelve generations, the Spring and Autumn has the human Way fully pervading and the kingly Way complete, its laws spread across two hundred and forty-two years, supporting each other on the left and right to form its pattern, arranged in interleaving positions rather than following the ancients. So those who discuss the Spring and Autumn combine and thread through, seek in sequence, compare its parallels, match its kinds, view its threads, and remove what is superfluous, and so the human Way pervades and the kingly law is established. To think otherwise: the Son of Heaven taking the throne after the year turns and the lords being called 'son' for three years within their borders are neither in the Classic, yet when held up they are no different from being in the Classic. This is not without discernment; there is something seen, so how could the Classic accept surplus? So those who can thread through kinds by parallels and give surplus to discernment gain a great deal.

人受命於天，有善善惡惡之性，可養而不可改，可豫而不可去，若形體之可肥轢而不可得革也。是故雖有至賢，能為君親含容其惡，不能為君親令無惡。書曰：“厥闢去厥只”事親亦然，皆忠孝之極也，非至賢安能如是。父不父則子不子，君不君則臣不臣耳。

People receive mandate from Heaven and have a nature that loves the good and hates the evil; it can be nurtured but not changed, can be guarded against but not removed, just as the body can be fat or thin but cannot be reformed. So even the most worthy can only tolerate the evil of ruler or parent on their behalf, but cannot make them without evil. The Book of Documents says: 'The prince removes his...' So also in serving parents; these are all the utmost of loyalty and filial piety, and who but the most worthy could do this? If the father does not act as father the son does not act as son, and if the ruler does not act as ruler the minister does not act as minister, and that is all.

文公不能服喪，不時奉祭，不以三年，又以喪取，取於大夫，以卑宗廟，亂其群祖，以逆先公，小善無一，而大惡四五；故諸侯弗予盟，命大夫弗為使，是惡惡之徵，不臣之效也。出侮於外，入奪於內，無位之君也。孔子曰：“政逮於大夫，四世矣。”蓋自文公以來之謂也。

Duke Wen could not keep the mourning, did not make sacrifices at the proper times, did not use the three years, and married during mourning, marrying a daughter of a grandee, thereby lowering the ancestral temple, throwing the ancestors into disorder and going against former dukes. He had not one small good and had four or five great evils; so the lords did not give him covenants and the grandees ordered by him did not serve as envoys. This is the proof of hating evil and the evidence of not being treated as a lord. Going out he was insulted abroad, and coming in he was robbed at home; he was a ruler without a position. Confucius said, 'Government has been in the hands of the grandees for four generations.' This probably refers to the time since Duke Wen.

君子知在位者不能以惡服人也，是故簡六藝以贍養之。詩書序其志，禮樂純其美，易春秋明其知，六學皆大，而各有所長。詩道志，故長於質；禮制節，故長於文；樂詠德，故長於風；書著功，故長於事；易本天地，故長於數；春秋正是非，故長於治人；能兼得其所長，而不能遍舉其詳也。故人主大節則知闇，大博則業厭，二者異失同貶，其傷必至，不可不察也。是故善為師者，既美其道，有慎其行，齊時蚤晚，任多少，適疾徐，造而勿趨，稽而勿苦，省其所為，而成其所湛，故力不勞，而身大成，此之謂聖化，吾取之。

The gentleman knows that those in position cannot make people submit by evil, so he selects the Six Arts to nourish them. The Odes and Documents arrange their aims in order, the Rites and Music purify their beauty, and the Changes and Spring and Autumn make their knowledge clear. All six studies are great, and each has its strength. The Odes guide aims, so they are strong in substance; the Rites set measures, so they are strong in form; Music chants virtue, so it is strong in moral influence; the Documents display achievement, so they are strong in affairs; the Changes take Heaven and Earth as their root, so they are strong in numbers; the Spring and Autumn sets right and wrong, so it is strong in governing people. One can combine their strengths but cannot cite all their details. So a ruler who is too restrained is dim in knowledge, and one who is too broad grows weary of affairs; the two faults differ yet are equally condemned, harm is sure to come, and one must examine this. Therefore one who is good at being a teacher both esteems his Way and is careful in his conduct, keeps even time of early and late, appoints more or fewer, quick or slow as fitting, develops without hurrying, examines without making them suffer, observes what they do and completes what they have deeply engaged in, so the strength is not exhausted and the person is greatly accomplished. This is called sage transformation, and I take this.

春秋之好微與，其貴志也。春秋修本末之義，達變故之應，通生死之志，遂人道之極者也。是故君殺賊討，則善而書其誅；若莫之討，則君不書葬，而賊不復見矣。不書葬，以為無臣子也；賊不復見，以其宜滅絕也。今趙盾弒君，四年之後，別牘復見，非春秋之常辭也。古今之學者異而問之曰：“是弒君，何以復見？猶曰賊未討，何以書葬？何以書葬者，不宜書葬也而書葬；何以復見者，亦不宜復見也而復見；二者同貫，不得不相若也。盾之復見，直以赴問而辨不親弒，非不當誅也；則亦不得不謂悼公之書葬，直以赴問而辨不成弒，非不當罪也。若是則春秋之說亂矣，豈可法哉！”“故貫比而論，是非雖難悉得，其義一也。今盾誅無傳，弗誅無傳，以比言之，法論也，無比而處之，誣辭也，今視其比，皆不當死，何以誅之。春秋赴問數百，應問數千，同留經中，翻援比類，以發其端，卒無妄言，而得應於傳者；今使外賊不可誅，故皆復見，而問曰：‘此復見，何也？’言莫妄於是，何以得應乎！故吾以其得應，知其問之不妄，以其問之不妄，知盾之獄不可不察也。夫名為弒父，而實免罪者，已有之矣；亦有名為弒君，而罪不誅者，逆而距之，不若徐而味之，且吾語盾有本，詩云：‘他人有心，予忖度之。’此言物莫無鄰，察視其外，可以見其內也。今案盾事，而觀其心，願而不刑，合而信之，非篡弒之鄰也，按盾辭號乎天，苟內不誠，安能如是，是故訓其終始，無弒之志，枸惡謀者，過在不遂去，罪在不討賊而已。臣之宜為君討賊也，猶子之宜為父嘗藥也；子不嘗藥，故加之弒父，臣不討賊，故加之弒君，其義一也。所以示天下廢臣子之節，其惡之大若此也。故盾之不討賊為弒君也，與止之不嘗藥為弒父無以異，盾不宜誅，以此參之。”問者曰：“夫謂之弒，而有不誅，其論難知，非蒙之所能見也。

The Spring and Autumn Annals likes the subtle and values the intention behind an act. It sets in order the meaning of root and branch, comprehends how to respond to changing events, penetrates the intention in life and death, and brings the Way of humanity to its utmost. Therefore, when a ruler is murdered and the traitor is punished, it commends this by recording the execution; if no one punishes the traitor, then the ruler's burial is not recorded and the traitor's name does not appear again. Not recording the burial means there are no ministers; the traitor not appearing again means he ought to be wiped out. Now Zhao Dun murdered his ruler, and four years later his name appeared again on a separate tablet, which is not the Annals' usual wording. Scholars past and present differ and ask: "This was regicide, so why does he appear again? It is as if the traitor had not yet been punished, so why is the burial recorded? Why is the burial recorded when it should not have been recorded? And why does he appear again when he should not have appeared again? The two run through each other and must be alike. Dun appearing again was only because someone went to inquire and it was clarified that he did not personally commit the murder, not because he should not have been punished; and then one cannot but also say that Duke Dao's burial being recorded was only because someone went to inquire and it was clarified that the regicide was not completed, not because he was not guilty. If so, the Annals' statements would be in chaos; how could it be taken as a model!" So when discussing by drawing parallels, although right and wrong may not be fully obtained, the principle is the same. Now that Dun was punished has no commentary, and that he was not punished has no commentary; to explain it by analogy is a legitimate argument, but to settle it without analogy is false speech. Now looking at those analogies, none of them should have died, so on what ground should he be punished? The Annals contains hundreds of inquiries and thousands of answers, all kept together in the classic; by turning and drawing analogies to open the matter, in the end it never speaks recklessly and can be answered in the commentaries. Now if an outside traitor could not be punished, he would all appear again, but then one asks: "Why does he appear again?" No words are more reckless than that; how can one get an answer! So because of this I get an answer, and know the question is not reckless; because the question is not reckless, I know Dun's case cannot but be examined. There are already those who are named as killing a father but in fact are free of guilt, and also those named as killing a ruler whose guilt is not punished. Rejecting it in the opposite direction is not as good as savoring it slowly. Moreover, I say Dun has a basis: the Book of Odes says: "Others have hearts, and I can fathom them." This means that nothing is without neighbors, and by observing the outside one can see the inside. Now taking Dun's affair and looking at his mind, he wished and did not use punishment, joined and trusted; he was not a neighbor of usurpation and murder. Taking Dun crying out to Heaven, if he were not sincere within, how could he be so? Therefore, interpreting from beginning to end, he had no intention to murder. Those who frame him with evil plots find his fault in not leaving as soon as it was not carried through, and his guilt lies merely in not punishing the traitor. A minister should punish traitors on behalf of the ruler, just as a son should taste the medicine for his father; if the son does not taste the medicine, the label of killing his father is added; if the minister does not punish the traitor, the label of killing his ruler is added; the principle is the same. This is to show the world how great is the evil of abandoning the duties of ministers and sons. So Dun's not punishing the traitor is killing the ruler, no different from Zhi's not tasting medicine being killing his father. Dun ought not to be executed; use this to verify it." The questioner said: "Called regicide yet not executed; this argument is hard to know and is not something that a benighted person can see.

故赦止之罪，以傳明之；盾不誅，無傳，何也？”曰：“世亂義廢，背上不臣，篡弒覆君者多，而有明大惡之誅，誰言其誅？故晉趙盾、楚公子比皆不誅之文，而弗為傳，弗欲明之心也。”問者曰：“人弒其君，重卿在而弗能討者，非一國也。靈公弒，趙盾不在，不在之與在，惡有厚薄，春秋責在而不討賊者，弗系臣子爾也；責不在而不討賊者，乃加弒焉，何其責厚惡之薄，薄惡之厚也？”曰：“春秋之道，視人所惑，為立說以大明之。今趙盾賢，而不遂於理，皆見其善，莫見其罪，故因其所賢，而加之大惡，系之重責，使人湛思，而自省悟以反道，曰：‘籲！君臣之大義，父子之道，乃至乎此。’此所由惡薄而責之厚也；他國不討賊者，諸斗筲之民，何足數哉！弗系人數而已，此所由惡厚而責薄也。傳曰：‘輕為重，重為輕。’非是之謂乎！故公子比嫌可以立，趙盾嫌無臣責，許止嫌無子罪，春秋為人不知惡，而恬行不備也，是故重累責之，以繅枉世而直之，繅者不過其正弗能直，知此而義畢矣。”

So the pardon of Zhi's guilt is explained by the commentary; Dun's not being executed has no commentary; why?" He said: "When the world is in chaos and righteousness is abandoned, those who go against their superiors and are not ministers, usurp, murder and overturn rulers are many, and if there were executions that make great evils plain, who would speak of those executions? So Zhao Dun of Jin and Prince Bi of Chu are both texts where there is no execution, yet no commentary is made, for it is not wanting to make the mind plain." The questioner said: "When a person kills his ruler and the senior ministers are present but cannot punish him, this is not just one state. When Duke Ling was murdered, Zhao Dun was not present. Being present and not being present differ in thickness of evil. The Annals blames the one present who did not punish the traitor only by not counting him among the ministers; but blames the one not present who did not punish the traitor by adding regicide; why is the blame light for the thick evil and heavy for the thin evil?" He said: "The way of the Annals is to look at what people are confused about and to establish an explanation for them in great clarity. Now Zhao Dun was worthy but did not follow principle through, and all saw his goodness and did not see his fault, so, relying on what he was worthy in, it adds a great evil and ties a heavy blame to it, making people think deeply and awaken on their own to return to the Way, saying: 'Ah! The great righteousness between ruler and minister and the way of father and son have come to this.' This is why the evil is light and the blame is heavy; the other states that did not punish traitors were all petty people, worth counting? It just does not count them among people, and this is why the evil is thick and the blame is light. The Commentary says: 'Light becomes heavy and heavy becomes light.' Is this not what it says! So Prince Bi appears to be fit to be established, Zhao Dun appears to have no minister's blame, and Xu Zhi appears to have no son's guilt; the Annals, because people do not know the evil and act calmly without precaution, therefore piles on the blame in layers in order to straighten a crooked age. Correcting what is crooked without going past straight cannot straighten it. Knowing this, the principle is complete."

春秋之常辭也，不予夷狄，而予中國為禮，至邲之戰，偏然反之，何也？”曰：“春秋無通辭，從變而移，今晉變而為夷狄，楚變而為君子，故移其辭以從其事。夫莊王之舍鄭，有可貴之美，晉人不知其善，而欲擊之，所救已解，如挑與之戰，此無善善之心，而輕救民之意也，是以賤之，而不使得與賢者為禮。秦穆侮蹇叔而大敗，鄭文輕眾而喪師，春秋之敬賢重民如是。是故戰攻侵伐，雖數百起，必一二書，傷其害所重也。”問者曰：“其書戰伐甚謹，其惡戰伐無辭，何也？”曰：“會同之事，大者主小，戰伐之事，後者主先，苟不惡，何為使起之者居下，是其惡戰伐之辭已！且春秋之法，凶年不修舊，意在無苦民爾；苦民尚惡之，況傷民乎！傷民尚痛之，況殺民乎！故曰：凶年修舊則譏，造邑則諱，是害民之小者，惡之小也；害民之大者，惡之大也，今戰伐之於民，其為害幾何！考意而觀指，則春秋之所惡者，不任德而任力，驅民而殘賊之；其所好者，設而勿用，仁義以服之也。詩云：‘弛其文德，洽此四國。’此春秋之所善也。夫德不足以親近，而文不足以來遠，而斷斷以戰伐為之者，此固春秋所甚疾已，皆非義也。”難者曰：“春秋之書戰伐也，有惡有善也，惡軸擊而善偏戰，恥伐喪而榮復讎，奈何以春秋為無義戰而盡惡之也？”曰：“凡春秋之記災異也，雖畝有數莖，猶謂之無麥苗也；今天下之大，三百年之久，戰攻侵伐，不可勝數，而復讎者有二焉，是何以異於無麥苗之有數莖哉！不足以難之，故謂之無義戰也。以無義戰為不可，則無麥苗亦不可也；以無麥苗為可，則無義戰亦可矣。若春秋之於偏戰也，善其偏，不善其戰，有以效其然也。春秋愛人，而戰者殺人，君子奚說善殺其所愛哉！故春秋之於偏戰也，猶其於諸夏也，引之魯，則謂之外，引之夷狄，則謂之內；

"The Annals' usual wording does not credit the barbarians but credits the Central States with ritual, but at the battle of Bi it is exactly reversed; why?" He said: "The Annals has no fixed universal wording and shifts as things change. Now Jin changed into barbarians and Chu changed into gentlemen, so it shifted its wording to follow the events. King Zhuang let Zheng go, which was a valuable beauty; the men of Jin did not recognize that good and wanted to attack him, and when the rescue was already finished they stirred up war with him; this is having no heart for esteeming the good and treating lightly the intent of rescuing the people, and so it despises them and does not let them perform ritual with the worthy. Duke Mu of Qin insulted Jian Shu and was greatly defeated, and Duke Wen of Zheng made light of the people and lost his army; this is how far the Annals respects the worthy and values the people. Therefore battles, attacks, invasions and campaigns, though hundreds, are all recorded one by one, because they harm what it values." The questioner said: "Recording of battles is very careful, yet there is no wording expressing hatred of warfare; why?" He said: "In matters of meeting and assembly, the great takes charge of the small; in matters of battle and campaign, the later takes charge of the earlier. If it did not hate it, why put the initiator below? That is already wording that hates warfare! Moreover, according to the Annals' law, in a famine year old works are not repaired, meaning only not to burden the people; if burdening the people is already disliked, how much more harming them! If harming the people is already lamented, how much more killing them! So it is said: repairing old works in a famine year is criticized, and building towns is avoided in the record. Where the harm to people is small, the evil is also small; where the harm is great, the evil is also great. Now what harm do battles and campaigns do to the people! Examining the intent and seeing its direction, what the Annals hates is not employing virtue but employing force, driving the people and ravaging them; what it likes is establishing without using, and winning people's trust through benevolence and righteousness. The Book of Odes says: 'Relax his civil virtue and harmonize these four states.' This is what the Annals approves. If virtue is not enough to bring people close and culture not enough to attract those far away, yet one resolutely acts by means of warfare, this is what the Annals deeply hates, and none of it is righteous." The critic said: "The Annals records battles and campaigns, with some evil and some good: it hates sneak attacks and approves of formal battles, is ashamed of attacking a state in mourning and honors avenging a wrong; how can one say that the Annals has no righteous wars and hates all of them?" He said: "Whenever the Annals records calamities and anomalies, even if there are a few stalks in a field, it still says there was no wheat sprout; now in a world so large and over three hundred years so long, battles, campaigns and invasions are countless, and those for revenge are two; how is that different from a few stalks among no wheat sprouts! They are not enough to blame, so it is called having no righteous wars. If it is wrong to say there are no righteous wars, then it is also wrong to say there are no wheat sprouts; if it is right to say there are no wheat sprouts, then it is right to say there are no righteous wars. As for how the Annals treats formal battles, it approves the formality, not the battle, and this is verified by such things. The Annals loves people, and those who fight kill people; how can a gentleman be said to like killing those he loves! So the Annals, regarding formal battle, is like regarding the Chinese states: relative to Lu it calls them outer, relative to the barbarians it calls them inner;

比之軸戰，則謂之義，比之不戰，則謂之不義；故盟不如不盟，然而有所謂善盟；戰不如不戰，然而有所謂善戰；不義之中有義，義之中有不義；辭不能及，皆在於指，非精心達思者，其庸能知之！詩云：‘棠棣之華，偏其反而；豈不爾思，室是遠而。’孔子曰：‘未之思也！夫何遠之有？’由是觀之，見其指者，不任其辭，不任其辭，然後可與適道矣。”

compared with a deceitful battle, it is called righteous; compared with no battle, it is called unrighteous. So a covenant is not as good as no covenant, yet there is what is called a good covenant; a battle is not as good as no battle, yet there is what is called a good battle. Within the unrighteous there is righteousness, and within righteousness there is unrighteousness. Wording cannot reach all of it, and it lies in the intent; who but one who thinks intensively and reaches deep could know it! The Book of Odes says: 'The flowers of the cherry tree, how they flutter and turn; do I not think of you? But your house is far away.' Confucius said: 'He has not thought of it! What is far about it?' From this we see that one who sees the intent is not bound by the wording; being unbound by the wording, one can then proceed to the Way with him."

“司馬子反為君使，廢君命，與敵情，從其所請，與宋平，是內專政，而外擅名也。專政則輕君，擅名則不臣，而春秋大之，奚由哉？”曰：“為其有慘怛之恩，不忍餓一國之民，使之相食。推恩者遠之為大，為仁者自然為美。今子反出己之心，矜宋之民，無計其閒，故大之也。”難者曰：“春秋之法，卿不憂諸侯，政不在大夫。子反為楚臣，而恤宋民，是憂諸侯也；不復其君，而與敵平，是政在大夫也。湨梁之盟，信在大夫，而春秋刺之，為其奪君尊也；平在大夫，亦奪君尊，而春秋大之，此所閒也。且春秋之義，臣有惡擅名美。故忠臣不顯諫，欲其由君出也。書曰：‘爾有嘉謀嘉猷，入告爾君於內，爾乃順之於外，曰：此謀此猷，惟我君之德。’此為人臣之法也；古之良大夫，其事君皆若是。今子反去君近而不復，莊王可見而不告，皆以其解二國之難，為不得已也，奈其奪君名美何！此所惑也。”曰：“春秋之道，固有常有變，變用於變，常用於常，各止其科，非相妨也。今諸子所稱，皆天下之常，雷同之義也；子反之行，一曲之變，獨修之意也。夫目驚而體失其容，心驚而事有所忘，人之情也；通於驚之情者，取其一美，不盡其失。詩云：‘採葑採菲，無以下體。’此之謂也。今子反往視宋，聞人相食，大驚而哀之，不意之至於此也，是以心駭目動，而違常禮。禮者，庶於仁，文質而成體者也。今使人相食，大失其仁，安著其禮，方救其質，奚恤其文，故曰：‘當仁不讓。’此之謂也。春秋之辭，有所謂賤者，有賤乎賤者，夫有賤乎賤者，則亦有貴乎貴者矣。今讓者，春秋之所貴，雖然，見人相食，驚人相爨，救之忘其讓，君子之道，有貴於讓者也，故說春秋者，無以平定之常義，疑變故之大，則義幾可諭矣。”

"Sima Zifan went as envoy on behalf of his ruler, disregarded the ruler's command, showed feeling to the enemy, followed what they asked and made peace with Song; this is monopolizing government within and usurping a name abroad. Monopolizing government slights the ruler, and usurping a name is not what a minister does, yet the Annals magnifies him; where does this come from?" He said: "Because he had compassion and grief in his kindness and could not bear to let the people of a whole state go hungry and eat one another. In extending kindness, the farther the greater; in practicing benevolence, the more natural the better. Now Zifan acted from his own heart, pitied the people of Song, and did not calculate the gap, so it magnifies him." The critic said: "By the Annals' law, a minister does not worry about the feudal lords, and government does not lie with grand masters. Zifan was a minister of Chu yet cared for the people of Song, which is worrying about the feudal lords; he did not report back to his ruler yet made peace with the enemy, which is government lying with a grand master. At the covenant of Jiliang, trust lay with the grand masters, and the Annals criticized it because it usurped the ruler's honor; making peace by the grand master also usurps the ruler's honor, yet the Annals magnifies him; this is a gap. Moreover, in the Annals' principle, if a minister has evil, usurping a name is a beauty. So loyal ministers do not remonstrate openly, wanting it to come from the ruler. The Book of Documents says: 'If you have a good plan or good counsel, go in and tell your ruler within, and then follow it outside, saying: this plan and this counsel are due to my ruler's virtue.' This is the model for ministers; good grand masters of ancient times all served their rulers so. Now Zifan was near his ruler and did not report back, and King Zhuang could be met and was not told, all because rescuing both states from calamity was unavoidable, but what of his usurping the ruler's name and beauty! This is what confuses people." He said: "The Way of the Annals originally has the constant and the changing; changes apply in changes, constants apply in constants, each stopping at its own rule, not harming each other. What these scholars cite are the constant and common principles of the world; Zifan's conduct is a change of one corner, an intent cultivated by itself. When the eyes are startled the body loses its dignity, and when the heart is startled one forgets something in affairs; this is human feeling; one who understands the feeling of being startled takes its one good point and does not list all the faults. The Book of Odes says: 'Gather the turnip and the radish, do not take only the lower part.' This is what it means. Now when Zifan went to see Song and heard that people were eating each other, he was greatly shocked and grieved, never having thought it would come to this, and so his heart was startled and his eyes moved and he violated the constant ritual. Ritual is close to benevolence, and refinement and substance together form the body. Now if people are made to eat one another, benevolence is greatly lost, so where would ritual attach? He is rescuing the substance right now; why bother with refinement? So it is said: 'When it comes to benevolence, do not yield even to the teacher.' This is what it means. The wording of the Annals has what is called lowly and what is lower than lowly; having what is lower than lowly, there is also what is higher than honored. Now yielding is what the Annals honors, and even so, seeing people eating people and being shocked by people cooking each other, he rescued them and forgot yielding. In the Way of the gentleman, there is something more valuable than yielding. So those who discuss the Annals should not use the usual principle of stable times and doubt the weight of changing events, and then the principle can nearly be made clear."

春秋記天下之得失，而見所以然之故，甚幽而明，無傳而著，不可不察也。夫泰山之為大，弗察弗見，而況微眇者乎！故按春秋而適往事，窮其端而視其故，得志之君子、有喜之人，不可不慎也。齊頃公親齊桓公之孫，國固廣大，而地勢便利矣，又得霸主之餘尊，而志加於諸侯，以此之故，難使會同，而易使驕奢，即位九年，末嘗肯一與會同之事，有怒魯衛之志，而不從諸侯於清丘斷道，春往伐魯，入其北郊，顧返伐衛，敗之新築；當是時也，方乘勝而志廣，大國往聘，慢而弗敬其使者，晉魯俱怒，內悉其眾，外得黨與衛曹，四國相輔，大困之?，獲齊頃公，斮逄醜父。深本頃公之所以大辱身，幾亡國，為天下笑，其端乃從懾魯勝衛起；伐魯，魯不敢出；擊衛，大敗之；因得氣而無敵國，以興患也。故曰：得志有喜，不可不戒。此其效也。自是之後，頃公恐懼，不聽聲樂，不飲酒食肉，內愛百姓，問疾弔喪，外敬諸侯，從會與盟，卒終其身，家國安寧。是福之本生於憂，而禍起於喜也。嗚呼！物之所由然，其於人切近，可不省邪！

The Annals records the gains and losses of the world and shows the reasons why things are so, being very obscure yet clear, without commentary yet evident, so one cannot but examine it. Mount Tai is so large that if one does not look one cannot see it, how much more the minute! So, following the Annals in handling past events, exhausting the beginnings to see the reasons, gentlemen who have achieved their aims and people who are happy cannot but be careful. Duke Qing of Qi was the grandson of Duke Huan of Qi in the direct line, his state was originally vast, the terrain favorable, and he had obtained the remaining prestige of a hegemon, his aims placing him above the lords; so it was hard to make him attend assemblies and easy to make him arrogant and extravagant. In nine years on the throne he never once agreed to take part in an assembly, and had intent to be angry with Lu and Wei, but did not follow the lords at Qingqiu and Duandao; in spring he went to attack Lu, entered the northern suburb, then turned back and attacked Wei, defeating it at Xinzhu. At just this time, riding on victory with broad ambitions, when great states went to send envoys he was neglectful and disrespectful to the envoys, and Jin and Lu both became angry, mobilizing all their people within and gaining allies Wei and Cao outside, the four states helping one another and greatly hemming him in at An, capturing Duke Qing of Qi and killing Pang Chou Fu. Probing deeply into why Duke Qing was so greatly humiliated, nearly lost his state and was laughed at by the world, the beginning arose from subduing Lu and winning over Wei: he attacked Lu and Lu did not dare come out; he struck Wei and badly defeated it; thus gaining pride and having no rival states, he stirred up calamity. So it is said: those who achieve their aims and are happy cannot but be on guard. This is the proof. After that Duke Qing grew fearful, did not listen to music, did not drink wine or eat meat, loved his people within, inquired about the sick and condoled the bereaved, was respectful to the lords outside, and joined in assemblies and covenants, and throughout his life his family and state were secure. This is the root of blessing arising from worry, and calamity arising from joy. Alas! That things are so is close to people; how can one not reflect on it!

“逄醜父殺其身以生其君，何以不得謂知權？醜父欺晉，祭仲許宋，俱枉正以存其君，然而醜父之所為，難於祭仲，祭仲見賢，而醜父猶見非，何也？”曰：“是非難別者在此，此其嫌疑相似，而不同理者，不可不察。夫去位而避兄弟者，君子之所甚貴；獲虜逃遁者，君子之所甚賤。祭仲措其君於人所甚貴，以生其君，故春秋以為知權而賢之；醜父措其君於人所甚賤，以生其君，春秋以為不知權而簡之。其俱枉正以存君，相似也，其使君榮之，與使君辱，不同理。故凡人之有為也，前枉而後義者，謂之中權，雖不能成，春秋善之，魯隱公、鄭祭仲是也；前正而後有枉者，謂之邪道，雖能成之，春秋不愛，齊頃公、逄醜父是也。夫冒大辱以生，其情無樂，故賢人不為也，而眾人疑焉，春秋以為人之不知義而疑也，故示之以義，曰：‘國滅，君死之，正也。’正也者，正於天之為人性命也，天之為人性命，使行仁義而羞可恥，非若鳥獸然，苟為生，苟為利而已。是故春秋推天施而順人理，以至尊為不可以加於至辱大羞，故獲者絕之；以至辱為亦不可以加於至尊大位，故雖失位，弗君也；已反國，復在位矣，而春秋猶有不君之辭，況其溷然方獲而虜邪！其於義也，非君定矣，若非君，則醜父何權矣！故欺三軍，為大罪於晉，其免頃公，為辱宗廟於齊，是以雖難，而春秋不愛。醜父大義，宜言於頃公曰：‘君慢侮而怒諸侯，是失禮大矣；今被大辱而弗能死，是無恥也；而復重罪，請俱死，無辱宗廟，無羞社稷。’如此，雖陷其身，尚有廉名，當此之時，死賢於生，故君子生以辱，不如死以榮，正是之謂也。由法論之，則醜父欺而不中權，忠而不中義，以為不然，復察春秋，春秋之序辭也，置王於春正之間，非曰：上奉天施，而下正人，然後可以為王也云爾！

"Pang Chou Fu killed himself to save his ruler's life; why can he not be called knowing the exigency (quan)? Chou Fu deceived Jin, and Zhai Zhong agreed with Song; both bent the correct to preserve their rulers, but what Chou Fu did was harder than what Zhai Zhong did; Zhai Zhong was regarded as worthy while Chou Fu is still regarded as wrong; why?" He said: "This is where right and wrong are hard to tell apart. These are cases of similar suspicion but different principle, and one cannot but examine them. Leaving one's position and avoiding one's brother is what the gentleman values very much; being captured and escaping is what the gentleman despises very much. Zhai Zhong placed his ruler in what people value highly in order to save his life, so the Annals regarded him as knowing the exigency and called him worthy; Chou Fu placed his ruler in what people despise in order to save his life, and the Annals regarded him as not knowing the exigency and slighted him. Both bent the correct to preserve their ruler, which is similar; but making the ruler honored versus making the ruler disgraced is a different principle. So when a person acts, if he bends first and accords with righteousness afterward, it is called the middle of the exigency, and even if he does not succeed the Annals treats him well, as with Duke Yin of Lu and Zhai Zhong of Zheng; if he is correct first and bends afterward, it is called the crooked way, and even if he succeeds the Annals does not love him, as with Duke Qing of Qi and Pang Chou Fu. To live while braving great disgrace has no joy in it, so worthy men do not do it, but ordinary people are confused. The Annals, because people do not know righteousness and are confused, shows righteousness to them and says: 'When the state is destroyed, the ruler dies for it; this is correct.' Correct means correct according to the destiny Heaven gives to people. The destiny Heaven gives to people makes them practice benevolence and righteousness and be ashamed of what is shameful, not like birds and beasts who merely seek life and seek profit carelessly. Therefore the Annals extends Heaven's bestowal and follows human principle, so that the utmost honor cannot be added to utmost disgrace and great shame, and thus the captured are cut off; the utmost disgrace also cannot be added to the utmost honor and great position, so even if he loses his position, it does not regard him as ruler; he had already returned to the state and was on the throne again, yet the Annals still has wording that denies him as ruler, how much more when he was in muddle and in captivity as a prisoner! In righteousness, then, the ruler was not yet fixed as ruler. If he was not the ruler, what exigency did Chou Fu have! So deceiving the three armies is a great crime against Jin; saving Duke Qing is a disgrace to the ancestral temple of Qi. Therefore, though it was hard, the Annals does not love it. Chou Fu's great righteousness should have been to say to Duke Qing: 'My lord, you insulted and angered the lords, which is a great loss of ritual; now having suffered great disgrace and not being able to die is shameless; and to add a heavy crime on top, I ask that we die together, so as not to disgrace the ancestral temple and shame the altars of soil and grain.' In this way, even though he would have lost his own life, he would still have a name of integrity. At just this time, death is better than life, so the gentleman, living and receiving disgrace is not as good as dying with honor; this is exactly what it means. Judged by the law, then Chou Fu deceived but did not hit the exigency, was loyal but did not hit righteousness. If you think it is not so, examine the Annals again. The Annals' ordering of words places the king between spring and the first month, which says: above, receive Heaven's bestowal, below, rectify people, and only then can one be king; nothing more than that!

今善善惡惡，好榮憎辱，非人能自生，此天施之在人者也，君子以天施之在人者聽之，則醜父弗忠也，天施之在人者，使人有廉恥，有廉恥者，不生於大辱，大辱莫甚於去南面之位。而束獲為虜也。曾子曰：‘辱若可避，避之而已；及其不可避，君子視死如歸。’謂如頃公者也。”

Now, esteeming the good and hating the evil, loving honor and detesting disgrace, are not things people produce on their own; they are what Heaven bestows on a person. A gentleman uses what Heaven bestows on a person to judge, and so Chou Fu was not loyal. What Heaven bestows on a person gives people a sense of integrity and shame. Those with a sense of integrity and shame do not live in great disgrace. No disgrace is greater than leaving the southward-facing position and being bound and captured as a prisoner. Zengzi said: 'If disgrace can be avoided, simply avoid it; when it cannot be avoided, the gentleman faces death as if returning home.' This is said of the likes of Duke Qing."

“春秋曰：‘鄭伐許。’奚惡於鄭，而夷狄之也？”曰：“衛侯遫卒，鄭師侵之，是伐喪也；鄭與諸侯盟於蜀，以盟而歸諸侯，於是伐許，是叛盟也。伐喪無義，叛盟無信，無信無義，故大惡之。”問者曰：“是君死，其子未踰年，有稱伯不子，法辭其罪何？”曰：“先王之制，有大喪者，三年不呼其門，順其志之不在事也。書曰：‘高宗諒闇，三年不言。’居喪之義也。今縱不能如是，奈何其父卒未踰年，即以喪舉兵也。春秋以薄恩，且施失其子心，故不復得稱子，謂之鄭伯，以辱之也。且其先君襄公，伐喪叛盟，得罪諸侯，諸侯怒之未解，惡之未已，繼其業者，宜務善以覆之，今又重之，無故居喪以伐人；父伐人喪，子以喪伐人；父加不義於人，子施失恩於親，以犯中國；是父負故惡於前，己起大惡於後，諸侯畢怒而憎之，率而俱至，謀共擊之，鄭乃恐懼去楚，而成蟲牢之盟是也。楚與中國，俠而擊之，鄭罷弊危亡，終身愁辜。吾本其端，無義而敗，由輕心然。孔子曰：‘道千乘之國，敬事而信。’知其為得失之大也，故敬而慎之。今鄭伯既無子恩，又不庸計，一舉兵不當，被患不窮，自取之也。是以生不得稱子，去其義也；死不得書葬，見其窮也。曰：有國者視此，行身不放義，興事不審時，其何如此爾。”

"The Annals says: 'Zheng attacked Xu.' Why does it hate Zheng and treat him as a barbarian?" He said: "When Marquis Su of Wei died, Zheng's army invaded; this is attacking a state in mourning. Zheng and the lords made a covenant at Shu, and after the covenant went back among the lords and then attacked Xu; this is breaking a covenant. Attacking a state in mourning has no righteousness, breaking a covenant has no good faith; having neither good faith nor righteousness, it hates him greatly." The questioner said: "This is a case where the ruler died and his son had not yet passed the year, and it calls him earl and not son; what is his offense in the formal wording?" He said: "In the institutions of the former kings, for those in great mourning, one does not call at their door for three years, following their intention of not engaging in affairs. The Book of Documents says: 'Gaozong was in silent mourning and did not speak for three years.' This is the righteousness of mourning. Now even if he could not do this, how could he, when his father had just died and the year had not passed, bring his troops while in mourning? The Annals, because his kindness was thin, and moreover he had lost the heart of a son, no longer allowed him to be called son and called him Earl of Zheng in order to humiliate him. Moreover, his late ruler Duke Xiang had attacked a state in mourning and broken a covenant and offended the lords, and the lords' anger had not been removed and their hatred had not stopped; the one who inherited that undertaking should have devoted himself to good to cover it over. Now he made it heavier, and without cause went to attack others while in mourning: the father attacked someone's mourning, and the son attacked others while in mourning; the father inflicted unrighteousness on others, and the son lost affection for his own parent and offended the Central States. This is the father carrying old evils ahead and the son raising great evils behind; the lords were all angry and hated him, came together in force and planned to strike him jointly, and only then did Zheng become afraid and leave Chu and complete the covenant of Chongluo. With Chu and the Central States pressing from both sides, Zheng was exhausted and in danger, and worried over his guilt for his whole life. I trace the beginning: failing without righteousness came from a careless heart. Confucius said: 'In governing a state of a thousand chariots, be reverent in affairs and keep faith.' He knew how great the gains and losses were, and so was reverent and careful. Now the Earl of Zheng neither had the kindness of a son nor made proper plans; with one military move that was not fitting he suffered endless calamity, which he brought on himself. Therefore, while alive he could not be called a son, which removes his righteousness; when he died his burial was not recorded, which displays his exhaustion. It is said: those who have a state should look at this: if one's conduct does not follow righteousness and one starts undertakings without examining the time, how else would it come to this."

謂一元者，大始也。知元年志者，大人之所重，小人之所輕。是故治國之端在正名，名之正，興五世，五傳之外，美惡乃形，可謂得其真矣，非子路之所能見。惟聖人能屬萬物於一，而系之元也，終不及本所從來而承之，不能遂其功。是以春秋變一謂之元，元猶原也，其義以隨天地終始也。故人唯有終始也，而生不必應四時之變，故元者為萬物之本，而人之元在焉，安在乎？乃在乎天地之前，故人雖生天氣，及奉天氣者，不得與天元、本天元命、而共違其所為也。故春正月者，承天地之所為也，繼天之所為而終之也，其道相與共功持業，安容言乃天地之元？天地之元，奚為於此？惡施於人？大其貫承意之理矣。是故春秋之道，以元之深，正天之端，以天之端，正王之政，以王之政，正諸侯之即位，以諸侯之即位，正竟內之治，五者俱正，而化大行。非其位而即之，雖受之先君，春秋危之，宋繆公是也；非其位不受之先君，而自即之，春秋危之，吳王僚是也；雖然，苟能行善得眾，春秋弗危，衛侯晉以立書葬是也；俱不宜立，而宋繆受之先君而危，衛宣弗受先君而不危，以此見得眾心之為大安也。故齊桓非直弗受之先君也，乃率弗宜為君者而立，罪亦重矣，然而知恐懼，敬舉賢人而以自覆蓋，知不背要盟，以自湔浣也，遂為賢君，而霸諸侯；使齊桓被惡，而無此美，得免殺戮乃幸已，何霸之有！魯桓忘其憂，而禍逮其身；齊桓憂其憂，而立功名。推而散之，凡人有憂而不知憂者，兇，有憂而深憂之者，吉。易曰：‘復自道，何其咎。’此之謂也。匹夫之反道以除咎，尚難，人主之反道以除咎、甚易。詩云：‘德輶如毛。’言其易也。

To speak of the "one origin" (yuan) is to speak of the great beginning. Those who know the intent of the first year are valued by great men and made light of by petty men. Therefore the starting point of governing a state lies in rectifying names. When names are rectified, rise through five generations, and beyond five transmissions, beauty and ugliness take shape, and one can be said to have gained the truth, which is not something Zilu could see. Only the sage can attribute the myriad things to one and tie them to the origin. If one finally does not return to where things come from and receive them, one cannot accomplish merit. Therefore the Annals changed "one" to "origin." Origin is like source (yuan), and its meaning follows the end and beginning of heaven and earth. So people have only end and beginning, and birth does not necessarily respond to the changes of the four seasons. Therefore the origin is the root of the myriad things, and the origin of humans is there. Where? It is before heaven and earth. So although people are born of heaven's energy and serve heaven's energy, they cannot, together with the heavenly origin and the destiny rooted in the heavenly origin, contravene what it does. Therefore the spring first month receives what heaven and earth do, continues what heaven does and finishes it, and the Way holds the undertaking together; how can one say it is the origin of heaven and earth? Why is the origin of heaven and earth here? How is it applied to humans? It magnifies the principle that links and receives intention. Therefore the Way of the Annals uses the depth of the origin to rectify the beginning of heaven; uses the beginning of heaven to rectify the king's government; uses the king's government to rectify the feudal lords' accession; and uses the feudal lords' accession to rectify the governance within the borders. When all five are rectified, teaching and transformation are widely carried out. One who acceded to a position not his own, even if receiving it from the former ruler, is regarded by the Annals as precarious, as with Duke Mu of Song; one who acceded to a position not his own, not receiving it from the former ruler but acceding himself, is regarded by the Annals as precarious, as with King Liao of Wu. Even so, if one can do good and win the multitude, the Annals does not regard him as precarious, as with Marquis Jin of Wei, whose burial is recorded because he was established. None of them should have been established, yet Duke Mu of Song, who received it from the former ruler, was precarious, while Duke Xuan of Wei, who did not receive it from the former ruler, was not precarious; from this we see that winning the hearts of the people is great security. So Duke Huan of Qi not only did not receive it from the former ruler but led those not suited to be ruler to establish him, and his offense was heavy too; yet he knew fear, respectfully raised worthy men to cover himself, knew not to violate the covenant of agreement to wash himself, and so became a worthy ruler and hegemon of the lords. If Duke Huan of Qi had borne the evil without these virtues, escaping slaughter would have been lucky, so how could he have been hegemon! Duke Huan of Lu forgot his worry and calamity reached his own person; Duke Huan of Qi worried about his worry and established merit and fame. Extending it, in all cases, those who have worry but do not know to worry will meet misfortune; those who have worry and worry deeply will have good fortune. The Book of Changes says: 'Returning along his own way, what fault could there be?' This is what it means. For a common man to return to the Way and remove fault is already hard; for a ruler to return to the Way and remove fault is very easy. The Book of Odes says: 'Virtue is light as a hair.' This means it is easy.

“公觀魚於棠，何惡也？”“凡人之性，莫不善義，然而不能義者，利敗之也；故君子終日言不及利，欲以勿言愧之而已，愧之以塞其源也。夫處位動風化者，徒言利之名爾，猶惡之，況求利乎！故天王使人求賻求金，皆為大惡而書。今非直使人也，親自求之，是為甚惡，譏。何故言觀魚？猶言觀社也，皆諱大惡之辭也。”

"The Duke watched fish at Tang; what did the Annals dislike?" "The nature of people is such that none does not love righteousness, yet they cannot be righteous because profit ruins it. So the gentleman does not mention profit in his talk all day long; he merely uses not speaking of profit to make others ashamed and uses shame to block the source. When one is in position and sets going the customs of transformation, even merely speaking the name of profit is disliked, how much more seeking profit! So when the Heavenly King sent people to seek funeral gifts and metal, these were all recorded as great evils. Now he not only sent people but sought in person, which is worse and so is criticized. Why say watching fish? It is like saying watching the altar, both being wording that avoids naming great evil."

春秋有經禮，有變禮。為如安性平心者、經禮也；至有於性雖不安，於心雖不平，於道無以易之，此變禮也。是故昏禮不稱主人，經禮也；辭窮無稱，稱主人，變禮也。天子三年然後稱王，經禮也；有故，則未三年而稱王，變禮也。婦人無出境之事，經禮也；母為子娶婦，奔喪父母，變禮也。明乎經變之事，然後知輕重之分，可與適權矣。難者曰：“春秋事同者辭同，此四者，俱為變禮，而或達於經，或不達於經，何也？”曰：“春秋理百物，辨品類，別嫌微，修本末者也。是故星墜謂之隕，螽墜謂之雨，其所發之處不同，或降於天，或發於地，其辭不可同也。今四者俱為變禮也同，而其所發亦不同，或發於男，或發於女，其辭不可同也。是或達於常，或達於變也。”

The Annals has the regular rites and the altered rites. Those that settle nature and calm the mind are regular rites; but where nature is not settled and the mind is not calm, and in the Way nothing can be changed, these are altered rites. So in the marriage rite, not calling it by the host is the regular rite; when words run out and there is nothing to call it, calling it by the host is the altered rite. The Son of Heaven being called king only after three years is the regular rite; when there is a reason, being called king before three years is the altered rite. A woman not having business outside the border is the regular rite; a mother taking a wife for her son, or going to a parent's funeral, is the altered rite. When one understands regular and altered affairs, one then knows the difference between light and heavy and can go on to the exigency with him. The critic said: "In the Annals, the same matter gets the same wording; these four are all altered rites, and some reach the regular and some do not; why?" He said: "The Annals governs the hundred things, distinguishes categories, tells apart suspicions and subtleties, and sets in order root and branch. So when a star falls it is called 'drops' (yun), and when locusts fall it is called 'rained' (yu); where they come from differs, either from heaven or from earth, so the wording cannot be the same. Now the four are all altered rites alike, but where they issue from differs, some from men and some from women, so the wording cannot be the same. This is how some reach the constant and some reach the changing."

桓之志無王，故不書王；其志欲立，故書即位。書即位者，言其弒君兄也；不書王者，以言其背天子。是故隱不言立，桓不言王者，從其志，以見其事也。從賢之志，以達其義；從不肖之志，以著其惡。由此觀之，春秋之所善、善也，所不善、亦不善也，不可不兩省也。

Duke Huan's intent had no king in it, so it does not record the king; his intent was to be established, so it records his accession. Recording his accession says that he killed his ruler and elder brother; not recording the king says that he turned against the Son of Heaven. Therefore for Yin it does not say established, and for Huan it does not say king, following their intentions to show the matter. Following the intention of the worthy, it makes their righteousness penetrating; following the intention of the unworthy, it makes their evil manifest. From this we see that what the Annals approves is good and what it does not approve is also not good, and one cannot but examine both sides.

“經曰：宋督弒其君與夷。傳言莊公馮殺之。不可及於經，何也？”曰：“非不可及於經，其及之端眇，不足以類鉤之，故難知也。傳曰：臧孫許與晉卻克同時而聘乎齊，按經無有，豈不微哉！不書其往，而有避也。今此傳而言莊公馮，而於經不書，亦以有避也。是以不書聘乎齊，避所羞也；不書莊公馮殺，避所善也。是故讓者，春秋之所善，宣公不與其子，而與其弟，其弟亦不與子，而反之兄子，雖不中法，皆有讓高，不可棄也，故君子為之諱。不居正之謂避其後也，亂移之宋督，以存善志，此亦春秋之義善無遺也，若直書其篡，則宣繆之高滅，而善之無所見矣。”難者曰：“為賢者諱，皆言之，為宣繆諱，獨弗言，何也？”曰：“不成於賢也，其為善不法，不可取，亦不可棄，棄之則棄善志也，取之則害王法，故不棄亦不載，以意見之而已。苟志於仁，無惡。此之謂也。”

"The classic says: 'Hua Du of Song killed his ruler Yuyi.' The commentary says that Duke Zhuang Feng killed him. This does not reach the classic; why?" He said: "It is not that it cannot reach the classic; the beginnings of what it reaches are subtle and not enough to be hooked by categories, so they are hard to know. The commentary says: Zang Sun Xu and Xi Ke of Jin visited Qi at the same time. By the classic, there is no such thing; is that not subtle! It does not record his going, because there is something to avoid. Now this commentary speaks of Duke Zhuang Feng, but the classic does not record it, also because there is something to avoid. So not recording the visit to Qi avoids what is shameful; not recording Duke Zhuang Feng's killing avoids what is good. Therefore yielding is what the Annals approves. Duke Xuan did not give the state to his son but to his younger brother; the brother also did not give it to his son but returned it to the elder brother's son. Even if it was not according to law, both have the height of yielding, which cannot be discarded, so the gentleman conceals it for them. Not occupying the proper position is called avoiding what follows; moving the disorder to Hua Du in order to preserve the good intention is also the Annals' principle that good has no omission. If it recorded directly that he usurped, then the height of Xuan and Mu would be wiped out, and the good would have no way to appear." The critic said: "For worthy persons it conceals, as everyone says; for Xuan and Mu alone it does not say so; why?" He said: "They did not complete themselves as worthy. Their doing good was not according to law, so it cannot be adopted and cannot be discarded. Discarding would discard the good intention, and adopting would harm the king's law, so it neither discards nor records them, and uses meaning to show it, that is all. 'If one aims at benevolence, there is no evil.' This is what it means."

器從名，地從主人之謂制，權之端焉，不可不察也。夫權雖反經，亦必在可以然之域，不在可以然之域，故雖死亡，終弗為也，公子目夷是也。故諸侯父子兄弟，不宜立而立者，春秋視其國，與宜立之君無以異也，此皆在可以然之域也；至於鄫取乎莒，以之為同居，目曰莒人滅鄫，此在不可以然之域也。故諸侯在不可以然之域者，謂之大德，大德無踰閒者，謂正經；諸侯在可以然之域者，謂之小德，小德出入可也；權譎也，尚歸之以奉鉅經耳。故春秋之道，博而要，詳而反一也。公子目夷復其君，終不與國，祭仲已與，後改之，晉荀息死而不聽，衛曼姑拒而弗內，此四臣事異而同心，其義一也。目夷之弗與，重宗廟；祭仲與之，亦重宗廟；荀息死之，貴先君之命；曼姑拒之，亦貴先君之命也。事雖相反，所為同，俱為重宗廟，貴先帝之命耳。難者曰：“公子目夷祭仲之所為者，皆存之事君，善之可矣；荀息曼姑非有此事也，而所欲恃者，皆不宜立者，何以得載乎義。”曰：“春秋之法，君立不宜立，不書；大夫立，則書。書之者，弗予大夫之得立不宜立者也；不書，予君之得立之也。君之立不宜立者，非也；既立之，大夫奉之，是也；荀息曼姑之所得為義也。”

Vessels follow names and land follows the master, which is called institution. The beginnings of the exigency cannot but be examined. Even though the exigency goes against the classic, it must be within the realm where it can be so. If it is not within the realm where it can be so, then even at the cost of death one will not do it, as with Prince Mu Yi. So among the lords' fathers, sons and brothers who were established when they should not have been, the Annals regards their states as no different from rulers who were suitable; these are all within the realm where it can be so. As for Zeng marrying from Ju and taking her as a co-resident, and then saying the men of Ju destroyed Zeng, this is outside the realm where it can be so. So lords within the realm where it cannot be so are said to have great virtue, and great virtue that does not overstep the boundary is called the correct classic; lords within the realm where it can be so are said to have small virtue, and small virtue may enter and leave as permitted. The expedient and deceptive, in the end, still return to upholding the great classic. So the Way of the Annals is broad yet concise, detailed yet returns to one. Prince Mu Yi restored his ruler and in the end did not give the state; Zhai Zhong had already given it and later changed; Xun Xi of Jin died and did not comply; Man Gu of Wei refused and did not admit. These four ministers' affairs differ but their hearts are the same, and the righteousness is one. Mu Yi's not giving was to value the ancestral temple; Zhai Zhong's giving was also to value the ancestral temple; Xun Xi's dying for it was to honor the former ruler's command; Man Gu's refusing was also to honor the former ruler's command. Though the affairs are opposite, what they did is the same: all valued the ancestral temple and honored the former ruler's command. The critic said: "What Prince Mu Yi and Zhai Zhong did was all about preserving and serving the ruler, and treating them well is permissible; Xun Xi and Man Gu had no such deeds, and what they relied on were all those who should not have been established; on what ground can they be recorded as righteous?" He said: "By the Annals' law, when a ruler establishes one who should not be established, it does not record it; when a grand master establishes, it records it. Recording it means not allowing the grand master to establish one who should not be established; not recording it means allowing the ruler to establish. A ruler establishing one who should not be established is wrong; once established, a grand master upholding him is right. This is how Xun Xi and Man Gu came to accord with righteousness."

難紀季曰：“春秋之法，大夫不得用地。又曰：公子無去國之義。又曰：君子不避外難。紀季犯此三者，何以為賢！賢臣故盜地以下敵，棄君以避難乎！”曰：“賢者不為是。是故托賢於紀季，以見季之弗為也；紀季弗為，而紀侯使之可知矣。春秋之書事，時詭其實，以有避也；其書人，時易其名，以有諱也。故詭晉文得志之實以代諱，避致王也；詭莒子號，謂之人，避隱公也；易慶父之名，謂之仲孫；變盛謂之成，諱大惡也。然則說春秋者，入則詭辭，隨其委曲，而後得之。今紀季受命乎君，而經書專，無善一名，而文見賢，此皆詭辭，不可不察。春秋之於所賢也，固順其志，而一其辭，章其義而褒其美。今紀侯、春秋之所貴也，是以聽其入齊之志，而詭其服罪之辭也，移之紀季。故告糴於齊者，實莊公為之，而春秋詭其辭，以予臧孫辰；以酅入於齊者，實紀侯為之，而春秋詭其辭，以與紀季；所以詭之不同，其實一也。”難者曰：“有國家者，人慾立之，固盡不聽；國滅，君死之，正也；何賢乎紀侯？”曰：“齊將復讎，紀侯自知力不加，而志距之，故謂其弟曰：‘我宗廟之主，不可以不死也，汝以酅往，服罪於齊，請以立五廟，使我先君歲時有所依歸。’率一國之眾，以衛九世之主，襄公逐之不去，求之弗予，上下同心，而俱死之，故謂之大去。春秋賢死義且得眾心也，故為諱滅，以為之諱，見其賢之也，以其賢之也，見其中仁義也。”

Criticizing Ji Ji, one says: "By the Annals' law, a grand master cannot monopolize land. It also says: a prince has no principle of leaving the state. It also says: a gentleman does not avoid outside troubles. Ji Ji violated these three; on what grounds is he regarded as worthy! Is a worthy minister one who steals land to surrender to the enemy and abandons his ruler to avoid trouble!" He said: "A worthy person does not do this. So it entrusts worthiness to Ji Ji to show that Ji did not do it; that Ji Ji did not do it, and that the Marquis of Ji had him do it, can be known. In recording events, the Annals sometimes alters the facts, because there is something to avoid; in recording people, it sometimes changes names, because there is something to conceal. So it alters the fact of Duke Wen of Jin's achieving his aim, substituting concealment, to avoid summoning the Son of Heaven; it alters the title of the Viscount of Ju, calling him 'person,' to avoid Duke Yin; it changes Qing Fu's name and calls him Zhongsun; it changes Sheng to Cheng, concealing a great evil. So those who discuss the Annals find there are deceptive wordings as soon as they enter, and only by following their twists and turns can one grasp it. Now Ji Ji received a command from his ruler, yet the classic records it as acting on his own, with no good name, while the text reveals him as worthy; these are all deceptive wordings, and one cannot but examine them. Regarding those it deems worthy, the Annals originally follows their intention, unifies the wording, and shows righteousness and praise. Now the Marquis of Ji is what the Annals honors, so it follows his intention of going into Qi, and alters the wording of submitting to punishment, shifting it to Ji Ji. So requesting grain from Qi was actually done by Duke Zhuang, but the Annals alters the wording and gives it to Zang Sun Chen; delivering Xi to Qi was actually done by the Marquis of Ji, but the Annals alters the wording and gives it to Ji Ji. So the alterations differ, but the reality is one." The critic said: "One who has a state, even when people want to establish him, originally does not listen at all; when the state is destroyed, the ruler dies for it, which is correct. Why is the Marquis of Ji regarded as worthy?" He said: "Qi was about to take revenge, and the Marquis of Ji knew his strength was insufficient but his will was to resist, so he said to his younger brother: 'I am the master of the ancestral temple and cannot but die. You take Xi and go to Qi, submit to punishment, and ask to establish five temples so that my former rulers have somewhere to return in each season.' Leading the people of a whole state, he protected the ruler of nine generations. Duke Xiang drove him and he did not leave, asked him and he did not give way; high and low were of one heart and all died together, so it is called 'great departure.' The Annals deems worthy those who die for righteousness and also gain the hearts of the multitude, so it conceals the destruction for him. Because it conceals it for him, it shows him as worthy; because it deems him worthy, it shows that he hit upon benevolence and righteousness."

春秋慎辭，謹於名倫等物者也。是故小夷言伐而不得言戰，大夷言戰而不得言獲，中國言獲而不得言執，各有辭也。有小夷避大夷而不得言戰，大夷避中國而不得言獲，中國避天子而不得言執，名倫弗予，嫌於相臣之辭也。是故大小不踰等，貴賤如其倫，義之正也。

The Annals is careful with wording, careful with names, ranks, relations and categories, and with arranging events and things. Therefore a minor barbarian is said to be 'attacked' and cannot be said to be 'fought'; a major barbarian is said to be 'fought' and cannot be said to be 'captured'; the Central States are said to be 'captured' and cannot be said to be 'seized.' Each has its own wording. The minor barbarian avoids the major barbarian and cannot be said to be 'fought'; the major barbarian avoids the Central States and cannot be said to be 'captured'; the Central States avoid the Son of Heaven and cannot be said to be 'seized.' If names, ranks, relations and categories are not given, it would be suspected of wording as if they were each other's ministers. Therefore great and small do not overstep their ranks, and noble and humble are like categories, which is the correctness of righteousness.

大●者何？旱祭也。難者曰：“大旱●祭而請雨，大水鳴鼓而攻社，天地之所為，陰陽之所起也，或請焉、或怒焉者何？”曰：“大旱者，陽滅陰也，陽滅陰者，尊厭卑也，固其義也，雖大甚，拜請之而已，敢有加也。大水者，陰滅陽也，陰滅陽者，卑勝尊也，日食亦然，皆下犯上，以賤傷貴者，逆節也，故鳴鼓而攻之，朱絲而脅之，為其不義也，此亦春秋之不畏強禦也。故變天地之位，正陰陽之序，直行其道，而不忘其難，義之至也。是故脅嚴社而不為不敬靈，出天王而不為不尊上，辭父之命而不為不承親，絕母之屬而不為不孝慈，義矣夫！”

What is the great yu (rain sacrifice)? It is a sacrifice for drought. The critic said: "In great drought the yu sacrifice is held to seek rain, and in great flood drums are beaten and the altar of the soil is attacked. Heaven and earth act, yin and yang rise, in one case they are petitioned and in another they are angered; why?" He said: "Great drought is yang destroying yin. Yang destroying yin is the honored pressing on the lowly, which is originally in accord with righteousness, and even if it is excessive one merely bows and petitions; who would dare add anything? Great flood is yin destroying yang. Yin destroying yang is the lowly overcoming the honored, as with a solar eclipse; both are the lower offending the upper and the base harming the noble, which is going against the proper order, so drums are beaten to attack it and red cords used to coerce it because it is unrighteous. This is also the Annals not fearing the strong and powerful. So it changes the positions of heaven and earth, rectifies the order of yin and yang, goes straight on its way and does not forget its difficulty, which is righteousness to the utmost. Therefore coercing the solemn altar of soil is not counted as irreverence toward the spirits, releasing the Heavenly King is not counted as failing to honor the superior, declining a father's command is not counted as failing to accept one's parent, and cutting off a mother's kin is not counted as unfilial; what righteousness!"

難者曰：“春秋之法，大夫無遂事。又曰：出境有可以安社稷、利國家者，則專之可也。又曰：大夫以君命出，進退在大夫也。又曰：聞喪徐行而不反也。夫既曰無遂事矣，又曰專之可也，既曰進退在大夫矣，又曰徐行而不反也，若相悖然，是何謂也？”曰：“四者各有所處，得其處，則皆是也，失其處，則皆非也。春秋固有常義，又有應變。無遂事者，謂平生安寧也；專之可也者，謂救危除患也；進退在大夫者，謂將率用兵也；徐行不反者，謂不以親害尊，不以私妨公也；此之謂將得其私知其指。故公子結受命，往媵陳人之婦於鄄，道生事，從齊桓盟，春秋弗非，以為救莊公之危。公子遂受命使京師，道生事，之晉，春秋非之，以為是時僖公安寧無危。故有危而不專救，謂之不忠；無危而擅生事，是卑君也。故此二臣俱生事，春秋有是有非，其義然也。”

The critic said: "By the Annals' law, a grand master has no right to carry out matters on his own. It also says: when going beyond the border, if there is something that can secure the altars and benefit the state, acting on one's own is permissible. It also says: a grand master goes out on the ruler's command, but advance and retreat rest with the grand master. It also says: on hearing of a mourning, one walks slowly and does not turn back. Since it says there is no acting on one's own, yet also says acting on one's own is permissible; since it says advance and retreat rest with the grand master, yet also says walk slowly and do not turn back, these seem contradictory; what does it mean?" He said: "The four each have their place; where they find their place they are all right, and where they lose their place they are all wrong. The Annals originally has constant principles and also responses to change. 'No acting on one's own' speaks of times of ordinary peace; 'acting on one's own is permissible' speaks of rescuing from danger and removing trouble; 'advance and retreat rest with the grand master' speaks of commanders using troops; 'walk slowly and do not turn back' speaks of not harming the honored because of one's parents and not obstructing the public because of the private. This is called getting the private and knowing the direction. So Prince Jie received a command and went to Juan to escort the wife of a man of Chen; something arose on the road, and he made a covenant with Duke Huan of Qi, and the Annals did not condemn it, regarding it as having rescued Duke Zhuang from danger. Prince Sui received a command to be envoy to the capital, and something arose on the road and he went to Jin, and the Annals condemned him, regarding it as a time when Duke Xi was at peace without danger. So where there is danger and one does not rescue on his own, it is called disloyal; where there is no danger and one makes something arise on his own, it is slighting the ruler. So these two ministers both made things arise, and the Annals has approval and condemnation; the righteousness is just so."

齊桓挾賢相之能，用大國之資，即位五年，不能致一諸侯，於柯之盟，見其大信，一年，而近國之君畢至，鄄幽之會是也。其後二十年之間，亦久矣，尚未能大合諸侯也，至於救邢衛之事，見存亡繼絕之義，而明年，遠國之君畢至，貫澤、陽穀之會是也。故曰：親近者不以言，召遠者不以使，此其效也。其後矜功，振而自足，而不修德，故楚人滅弦而志弗憂，江黃伐陳而不往救，損人之國，而執其大夫，不救陳之患，而責陳不納，不復安鄭，而必欲迫之以兵，功未良成，而志已滿矣。故曰：管仲之器小哉！此之謂也。自是日衰，九國叛矣。

Duke Huan of Qi, holding the ability of a worthy chancellor and using the resources of a great state, in the fifth year of his reign could not bring in a single lord. At the covenant of Ke he showed great good faith, and within a year the rulers of nearby states all arrived, as at the meetings of Juan and You. For the twenty years after that, a long time, he still could not greatly unite the lords. When it came to the matter of rescuing Xing and Wei, he showed the righteousness of preserving the perishing and continuing the broken, and the next year the rulers of far states all arrived, as at the meetings of Guanze and Yanggu. So it is said: for those close one does not need words, and to summon those far one does not need envoys; this is the proof. After that he was proud of his achievement, roused and self-satisfied, and did not cultivate virtue, so when the men of Chu destroyed Xian he did not worry, and when Jiang and Huang attacked Chen he did not go to rescue; he harmed others' states and captured their grand masters, did not rescue Chen's trouble but blamed Chen for not admitting him, did not again settle Zheng but had to press with troops. His achievement was not yet well accomplished, but his ambition was already full. So it is said: Guan Zhong's capacity was small! This is what it means. From then on he declined day by day, and nine states turned away.

春秋之聽獄也，必本其事而原其志。志邪者，不待成；首惡者，罪特重；本直者，其論輕。是故逢醜父當斮，而轅濤塗不宜執，魯季子追慶父，而吳季子釋闔廬，此四者，罪同異論，其本殊也。俱欺三軍，或死或不死；俱弒君，或誅或不誅；聽訟折獄，可無審耶！故折獄而是也，理益明，教益行；折獄而非也，闇理迷眾，與教相妨。教，政之本也，獄，政之末也，其事異域，其用一也，不可不以相順，故君子重之也。

In hearing cases, the Annals always relies on the facts and traces back the intention. Where the intention is wicked, it does not wait for completion; the one who initiates the evil has a particularly heavy offense; those whose root is upright are judged lightly. Therefore Pang Chou Fu should have been beheaded, while Yuan Taotu should not have been captured; Ji Zi of Lu pursued Qing Fu, while Ji Zi of Wu released Helu. In these four cases, the crimes are the same but the judgments differ because the root differs. All deceived the three armies, yet some died and some did not; all killed a ruler, yet some were executed and some were not. In hearing lawsuits and deciding cases, can one fail to examine closely! So when a case is decided rightly, the principle becomes clearer and teaching is carried out more widely; when a case is decided wrongly, it obscures principle and confuses the multitude and hinders teaching. Teaching is the root of government and litigation is its branch; the matters lie in different realms but have the same use, and cannot fail to accord with each other, so the gentleman values it.

難晉事者曰：“春秋之法，未踰年之君稱子，蓋人心之正也，至裡克殺奚齊，避此正辭，而稱君之子，何也？”曰：“所聞詩無達詁，易無達占，春秋無達辭。從變從義，而一以奉人。仁人錄其同姓之禍，固宜異操。晉，春秋之同姓也，驪姬一謀，而三君死之，天下之所共痛也，本其所為為之者，蔽於所欲得位，而不見其難也；春秋疾其所蔽，故去其正辭，徒言君之子而已。若謂奚齊曰：‘嘻嘻！為大國君之子，富貴足矣，何必以兄之位為欲居之，以至此乎云爾！’錄所痛之辭也。故痛之中有痛，無罪而受其死者，申生、奚齊、卓子是也；惡之中有惡者，己立之，己殺之，不得如他臣之弒君，齊公子商人是也。故晉禍痛而齊禍重，春秋傷痛而敦重，是以奪晉子繼位之辭，與齊子成君之號，詳見之也。”

One who criticizes the matter of Jin says: "By the Annals' law, a ruler who has not yet passed the year is called 'son,' which is probably the correctness of human feeling. When Li Ke killed Xiqi, it avoided this correct wording and called him 'son of the ruler'; why?" He said: "What I have heard is that the Odes has no universal gloss, the Changes has no universal divination, and the Annals has no universal wording. It follows change and follows righteousness, and uniformly serves people. A benevolent person records the misfortunes of those of the same surname, and so naturally the handling should be different. Jin was of the same surname as the Annals' author, and with one scheme of Lady Li, three rulers died for it, which the whole world mourned together. Tracing those who acted this way, they were blinded by the position they sought and could not see the difficulty. The Annals hates what blinded him, so it removes the correct wording and says only 'son of the ruler.' It is as if saying to Xiqi: 'Alas! You are the son of the ruler of a great state, wealth and rank are enough for you; why did you want your elder brother's position to such a degree, to this end, and no more!' This is wording recording what is mourned. So within what is mourned there is further mourning: those who died without guilt, as with Shensheng, Xiqi and Zhuozi; within what is evil there is further evil: one who established him and killed him himself, unlike other ministers killing rulers, as with Prince Shangren of Qi. So Jin's calamity is mournful and Qi's calamity is heavy; the Annals grieves and mourns, and is generous and values the heavy, and therefore the wording that removes Jin's son from succession and the title that gives Qi's son as ruler are shown in detail."

古之人有言曰：“不知來，視諸往。”今春秋之為學也，道往而明來者也，然而其辭體天之微，效難知也，弗能察，寂若無，能察之，無物不在。是故為春秋者，得一端而多連之，見一空而博貫之，則天下盡矣。魯僖公以亂即位，而知親任季子，季子無恙之時，內無臣下之亂，外無諸侯之患，行之二十年，國家安寧；季子卒之後，魯不支鄰國之患，直乞師楚耳；僖公之情，非輒不肖，而國衰益危者，何也？以無季子也。以魯人之若是也，亦知他國之皆若是也，以他國之皆若是，亦知天下之皆若是也，此之謂連而貫之，故天下雖大，古今雖久，以是定矣。以所任賢，謂之主尊國安，所任非其人，謂之主卑國危，萬世必然，無所疑也。其在易曰：“鼎折足，覆公餗。”夫鼎折足者，任非其人也，覆公餗者，國家傾也。是故任非其人，而國家不傾者，自古至今，未嘗聞也。故吾按春秋而觀成敗，乃切悁悁於前世之興亡也，任賢臣者，國家之興也。夫知不足以知賢，無可奈何矣；知之不能任，大者以死亡，小者以亂危，其若是何邪？以莊公不知季子賢邪？安知病將死，召而授以國政；以殤公為不知孔父賢邪？安知孔父死，已必死，趨而救之；二主知皆足以知賢，而不決，不能任，故魯莊以危，宋殤以弒，使莊公早用季子，而宋殤素任孔父，尚將興鄰國，豈直免弒哉！此吾所悁悁而悲者也。

The ancients had a saying: "If you do not know what is coming, look at what has gone." Now the Spring and Autumn Annals, as a field of study, speaks of the past in order to illuminate what is to come. Yet its wording embodies the subtlety of Heaven, and its verification is hard to know. If one cannot discern it, it is silent as if nothing were there; if one can discern it, there is nothing in which it is not present. Therefore, one who works on the Spring and Autumn Annals, on getting hold of one end, links it to many sides, and on seeing a gap, reaches across it broadly and threads it through, and then the whole world is exhausted. Duke Xi of Lu took his seat in a time of disorder, yet knew to trust and employ Jizi personally. While Jizi was well, there was no disorder of ministers within and no trouble from the feudal lords without; this was kept up for twenty years and the state was at peace. After Jizi died, Lu could not withstand the troubles from neighboring states, and could only beg Chu for troops. Duke Xi's character did not suddenly become unworthy, yet the state grew more weak and endangered; why? Because there was no Jizi. From the people of Lu being so, one also knows that other states are all so; from other states being so, one also knows that the whole world is so. This is called linking and threading through. Therefore, however vast the world and however long past and present, this settles it. When the worthy are employed, it is called the ruler honored and the state secure; when those employed are not the right men, it is called the ruler lowly and the state endangered, which holds for ten thousand generations without doubt. The Book of Changes says: "The tripod breaks a leg and overturns the ducal stew." The tripod breaking a leg is employing the wrong men; overturning the ducal stew is the state being overturned. Therefore, that one employed the wrong men and yet the state was not overturned has never been heard of from antiquity to the present. So when I look at success and failure according to the Spring and Autumn Annals, I am deeply and sorrowfully moved by the rise and fall of earlier ages. Employing worthy ministers is the rising of a state. If one's knowledge is not enough to know the worthy, there is nothing to be done; but to know and be unable to employ them means the great perish for it and the small fall into disorder and danger. Why is it like this? Do you think Duke Zhuang did not know that Jizi was worthy? How, then, did he, when ill and about to die, summon him and hand the state's government to him? Do you think Duke Shang did not know that Kong Fu was worthy? How, then, did he, knowing that if Kong Fu died he himself would surely die, rush to rescue him? The knowledge of both rulers was enough to know the worthy, yet they did not decide and could not employ them, and so Duke Zhuang of Lu was endangered by it and Duke Shang of Song was assassinated by it. Had Duke Zhuang employed Jizi early, and Duke Shang of Song employed Kong Fu all along, they might even have made neighboring states rise, let alone escaped assassination! This is what I sorrowfully grieve over.

春秋何貴乎元而言之？元者，始也，言本正也；道，王道也；王者，人之始也。王正，則元氣和順，風雨時，景星見，黃龍下；王不正，則上變天，賊氣幷見。五帝三王之治天下，不敢有君民之心，什一而稅，教以愛，使以忠，敬長老，親親而尊尊，不奪民時，使民不過歲三日，民家給人足，無怨望忿怒之患、強弱之難，無讒賊妒疾之人，民修德而美好，被髮銜哺而遊，不慕富貴，恥惡不犯，父不哭子，兄不哭弟，毒蟲不螫，猛獸不搏，抵蟲不觸，故天為之下甘露，朱草生，醴泉出，風雨時，嘉禾興，鳳凰麒麟遊於郊，囹圄空虛，畫衣裳而民不犯，四夷傳譯而朝，民情至樸而不文，郊天祀地，秩山川，以時至封於泰山，禪於梁父，立明堂，宗祀先帝，以祖配天，天下諸侯各以其職來祭，貢土地所有，先以入宗廟，端冕盛服，而後見先，德恩之報，奉先之應也。

Why does the Spring and Autumn Annals value "yuan", the first? Yuan is the beginning, and it speaks of the root being upright; the Way is the kingly way; and the king is the beginning of people. When the king is upright, the original qi is harmonious and smooth, wind and rain come in season, auspicious stars appear and yellow dragons descend; when the king is not upright, above there are changes in the heavens and the qi of rebels appears all at once. The Five Emperors and Three Kings governed the world without daring to hold the mind of a ruler looking down on the people; they taxed one part in ten, taught with love, employed with loyalty, respected the old and the senior, loved kin and honored the honorable, did not take away the people's seasons, and called the people to labor no more than three days a year, so that the people's households had enough and every person was provided for, with no trouble of resentment and anger, no hardship of the strong and weak, and no people of slander, villainy, jealousy or spite. The people cultivated virtue and were good, wandered with loose hair and food in their mouths, did not envy wealth and rank, were ashamed to do evil and did not offend; fathers did not weep for sons, elder brothers did not weep for younger brothers, venomous creatures did not sting, fierce beasts did not strike, and horned creatures did not gore. Therefore Heaven sent down sweet dew for them, the red grass grew, sweet springs gushed forth, wind and rain came in season, fine grain flourished, phoenixes and unicorns roamed the suburbs, prisons stood empty, people did not break the law even when only robes were painted as punishment, and the four barbarian tribes came to court through interpreters. The people's feelings were utterly simple and without adornment; they sacrificed to Heaven and Earth in the suburbs, ranked the mountains and rivers, performed the feng sacrifice at Mount Tai and the shan sacrifice at Liangfu at the proper times, set up the Hall of Light, venerated the former emperors and sacrificed to them with the ancestors paired with Heaven. The feudal lords of the world each sacrificed according to their duties, offered up what their lands produced, entered the ancestral temple first, and in ceremonial cap and full dress only then saw their forebears. This was the repayment of virtue and kindness and the response to honoring ancestors.

桀紂皆聖王之後，驕溢妄行，侈宮室，廣苑囿，窮五采之變，極飭材之工，困野獸之足，竭山澤之利，食類惡之獸，奪民財食，高雕文刻鏤之觀，盡金玉骨象之工，盛羽旄之飾，窮白黑之變，深刑妄殺以陵下，聽鄭衛之音，充傾宮之志，靈虎兕文采之獸，以希見之意，賞佞賜讒，以糟為邱，以酒為池，孤貧不養，殺聖賢而剖其心，生燔人，聞其臭，剔孕婦，見其化，斮朝涉之足，察其拇，殺梅伯以為醢，刑鬼侯之女，取其環。誅求無已，天下空虛，群臣畏恐，莫敢盡忠，紂愈自賢，周發兵，不期會於孟津者，八百諸侯，共誅紂，大亡天下，春秋以為戒，曰蒲社災。周衰，天子微弱，諸侯力政，大夫專國，士專邑，不能行度製法文之禮，諸侯背叛，莫修貢聘，奉獻天子，臣弒其君，子弒其父，孽殺其宗，不能統理，更相伐銼以廣地，以強相脅，不能制屬，強奄弱，眾暴寡，富使貧，併兼無已，臣下上僭，不能禁止，日為之食，星霣如雨，雨螽，沙鹿崩，夏大雨水，冬大雨雪，霣石於宋五，六鷁退飛，霣霜不殺草，李梅實，正月不雨，至於秋七月，地震，梁山崩，壅河，三日不流，畫晦，彗星見於東方，孛於大辰，鸛鵒來巢，春秋異之，以此見悖亂之徵。孔子明得失，差貴賤，反王道之本，譏天王以致太平，刺惡譏微，不遺小大，善無細而不舉，惡無細而不去，進善誅惡，絕諸本而已矣。

Jie and Zhou were both descendants of sage kings, but they were arrogant, overflowing and reckless in conduct. They were extravagant in palaces and chambers, enlarged their parks and gardens, exhausted all the variations of the five colors, pushed the craft of refining materials to the limit, hobbled the feet of wild beasts, drained the benefits of mountains and marshes, ate vile creatures, seized the people's wealth and food, raised the heights of carved and engraved viewing structures, exhausted the craft of gold, jade, bone and ivory, filled their displays with feathers and yak tails, exhausted the variations of white and black, used harsh punishments and reckless killing to ride roughshod over those below, listened to the music of Zheng and Wei, filled the ambition of the Tilted Palace, kept tigers, rhinoceroses and patterned beasts to satisfy their desire for the rare, rewarded flatterers and favored slanderers, made dregs into a hill and wine into a pond, did not nourish the orphaned and poor, killed sages and worthies and cut out their hearts, burned people alive to smell the odor, slit open pregnant women to watch the changes, chopped off the shins of those who waded the river in the morning to examine their thumbs, killed Mei Bo and made him into mince, and punished the daughter of the Lord of Gui and took her bracelet. Their exactions had no end, the world was emptied, and the ministers were fearful and did not dare be loyal. Zhou grew still more convinced of his own worthiness. When Zhou sent out troops, the eight hundred feudal lords who met at Mengjin without prior agreement jointly punished Zhou, and the world was lost entirely. The Spring and Autumn Annals made this a warning, in recording the disaster at the altar of Pu. When Zhou declined, the Son of Heaven was weak, and the feudal lords wielded power in government, the grand masters monopolized the state and the gentlemen monopolized their cities, so that the rites of institutions, laws and written codes could not be carried out. The feudal lords rebelled, did not cultivate tribute and visits, and did not present offerings to the Son of Heaven. Ministers killed rulers, sons killed fathers, and children of concubines killed heirs; there was no one able to govern, and states attacked one another to enlarge their land, bullied one another by force, and could not restrain their own subordinates. The strong swallowed the weak, the many oppressed the few, the rich used the poor as servants, annexation had no end, and subordinates overstepped their superiors and could not be stopped. The sun was eclipsed, stars fell like rain, locusts rained down, Mount Shalu collapsed, in summer there were great floods, in winter great snows, five stones fell in Song, six fish-hawks flew backward, frost fell without killing the grass, plum and apricot trees bore fruit, there was no rain from the first month until the seventh month of autumn, the earth shook, Mount Liang collapsed and blocked the river so that for three days it did not flow, the daytime grew dark, a comet appeared in the east and a bo star appeared near the Great Fire, and mynas came to nest. The Spring and Autumn Annals considered these anomalies, and from them one sees the evidence of perversity and disorder. Confucius made clear success and failure, graded the noble and lowly, returned to the root of the kingly way, and criticized the Son of Heaven in order to bring about great peace; he rebuked evil and mocked the subtle, leaving out nothing large or small, so that no goodness was too small to be raised up and no evil too small to be removed, advancing the good and punishing the evil, cutting it off at the root, and that is all.

天王使宰喧來歸惠公仲子之賵，刺不及事也；天王伐鄭，譏親也；會王世子，譏微也；祭公來逆王后，譏失禮也。刺家父求車，武氏毛伯求賻金，王人救衛，王師敗於貿戎，天王不養，出居於鄭，殺母弟，王室亂，不能及外，分為東西周，無以先天下。召衛侯，不能致，遣子突徵衛，不能絕；伐鄭，不能從；無駭滅極，不能從。諸侯得以大亂，篡弒無已，臣下上逼，僭擬天子；諸侯強者行威，小國破滅；晉至三侵周，與天王戰於貿戎，而大敗之；戎執凡伯於楚丘，以歸；諸侯本怨隨惡，發兵相破，夷人宗廟社稷，不能統理；臣子強，至弒其君父；法度廢，而不復用，威武絕，而不復行。故鄭魯易地，晉文再致天子，齊桓會王世子，擅封邢衛杞，橫行中國，意欲王天下，魯舞八佾，北祭泰山，郊天祀地，如天子之為，以此之故，弒君三十二，亡國五十二，細惡不絕之所致也。

The Son of Heaven sent Zai Xuan to present feng gifts for Duke Hui and Zhongzi, which rebukes arriving too late for the event; the Son of Heaven attacking Zheng, which criticizes his doing it in person; meeting the king's heir, which criticizes the lowliness; the Duke of Zhai coming to welcome the royal consort, which criticizes the loss of ritual. It rebukes Jiafu seeking carriages, the Lord of Wu and the Earl of Mao seeking funeral gold, the royal men rescuing Wei, and the royal army being defeated at Maorong; the Son of Heaven was not supported and went out to live in Zheng, killed his younger brother by the same mother, the royal house was in disorder and could not reach beyond, and was divided into Eastern and Western Zhou, with no way to lead the world. It summoned the Marquis of Wei and could not bring him in; it dispatched Zitu to campaign against Wei and could not cut it off; it attacked Zheng and could not be followed; and when Wuhai destroyed Ji, it could not be followed. The feudal lords were thereby thrown into great disorder, usurpation and assassination had no end, subordinates pressed on their superiors and imitated the Son of Heaven; the strong feudal lords displayed their might and small states were destroyed. Jin went as far as invading Zhou three times and fought the Son of Heaven at Maorong and utterly defeated him; the Rong seized Fan Bo at Chuqiu and took him back. The feudal lords were already resentful and followed evil, sent out troops to break one another, razed one another's ancestral temples and altars, and no one could govern; ministers grew strong, to the point of assassinating their rulers and fathers; institutions were abandoned and no longer used, and martial authority was cut off and no longer exercised. Thus Zheng and Lu exchanged land, Duke Wen of Jin summoned the Son of Heaven twice, Duke Huan of Qi met the king's heir and on his own authority enfeoffed Xing, Wei and Qi, ran roughshod over the Central States, and had in mind to be king of the world. Lu danced eight rows of dancers, sacrificed north at Mount Tai, and sacrificed to Heaven and Earth in the suburbs as the Son of Heaven did. For this reason there were thirty-two assassinated rulers and fifty-two ruined states, brought about by not cutting off small evils.

春秋立義，天子祭天地，諸侯祭社稷，諸山川不在封內不祭。有天子在，諸侯不得專地，不得專封，不得專執天子之大夫，不得舞天子之樂，不得致天子之賦，不得適天子之貴。君親無將，將而誅，大夫不得世，大夫不得廢置君命。立適以長不以賢，立子以貴不以長，立夫人以適不以妾，天子不臣母后之黨，親近以來遠，未有不先近而致遠者也。故內其國而外諸夏，內諸夏而外夷狄，言自近者始也。

The Spring and Autumn Annals sets up its principles: the Son of Heaven sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, the feudal lords sacrifice to the altars of state, and the mountains and rivers that are not within one's fief are not sacrificed to. With the Son of Heaven present, the feudal lords may not monopolize land, may not monopolize enfeoffment, may not on their own authority seize a grand master of the Son of Heaven, may not dance the Son of Heaven's music, may not send off the Son of Heaven's tribute, and may not match the Son of Heaven's honor. Against a ruler or a parent there must be no intent to harm, and intent is punished. Grand masters may not inherit their offices, and grand masters may not abolish or set aside the ruler's command. In installing an heir one goes by seniority and not worth, in installing a son one goes by rank and not seniority, and in installing a lady one goes by principal wife and not concubine. The Son of Heaven does not treat the kin of his mother the queen as his ministers. One draws the near close in order to draw the far in; there is none who does not first draw the near in order to draw the far. Therefore one treats one's own state as inner and the Chinese states as outer, and treats the Chinese states as inner and the barbarians as outer; this means starting from the near.

諸侯來朝者得褒，邾婁儀父稱字，滕薛稱侯，荊得人，介葛盧得名；內出言如，諸侯來曰朝，大夫來曰聘，王道之意也。誅惡而不得遺細大，諸侯不得為匹夫興師，不得執天子之大夫，執天子之大夫，與伐國同罪，執凡伯言伐；獻八佾，諱八言六；鄭魯易地，諱易言假；晉文再致天子，諱致言狩；桓公存邢衛杞，不見春秋，內心予之行，法絕而不予，止亂之道也，非諸侯所當為也。春秋之義，臣不討賊，非臣也，子不復儲，非子也；故誅趙盾，賊不討者，不書葬，臣子之誅也；許世子止不嘗藥，而誅為弒父；楚公子比脅而立，而不免於死；齊桓晉文擅封致天子，誅亂，繼絕存亡，侵伐會同，常為本主，曰：桓公救中國，攘夷狄，卒服楚，至為王者事；晉文再致天子，皆止不誅，善其牧諸侯，奉獻天子，而服周室，春秋予之為伯，誅意不誅辭之謂也。

Feudal lords who came to court were praised: Yifu of Zhulou is called by his courtesy name, Teng and Xue are called marquises, Jing may be called "the people", and Ge Lu of Jie may be called by name. For going out from within, "go to" is said; when feudal lords come it is called court, and when grand masters come it is called a visit of inquiry; this is the meaning of the kingly way. It punishes wickedness without omitting anything small or large. Feudal lords may not raise an army for a commoner and may not seize a grand master of the Son of Heaven; seizing a grand master of the Son of Heaven is the same crime as attacking a state, and the seizure of Fan Bo is called an attack. When eight rows of dancers were offered, the eight is concealed and "six" is said; when Zheng and Lu exchanged land, the exchange is concealed and "borrowed" is said; when Duke Wen of Jin summoned the Son of Heaven twice, the summoning is concealed and "hunting" is said. Duke Huan preserving Xing, Wei and Qi does not appear in the Spring and Autumn Annals; inwardly it approves his conduct, but in the law it cuts it off and does not grant it, which is the way of stopping disorder and not something feudal lords should do. The principle of the Spring and Autumn Annals is that a minister who does not punish the rebel is not a minister, and a son who does not avenge is not a son. So it punishes Zhao Dun: where the rebel was not punished, the burial is not recorded, as a punishment on the ministers and sons. The heir of Xu, Zhi, did not taste the medicine, and was punished as having assassinated his father; Prince Bi of Chu was installed under compulsion, yet could not escape death. Dukes Huan of Qi and Wen of Jin enfeoffed on their own authority and summoned the Son of Heaven, but they punished disorder, continued broken lines and preserved the perishing, and in invasions, attacks, meetings and gatherings were often the main leaders. It says: Duke Huan rescued the Central States, repelled the barbarians and in the end made Chu submit, even to the point of doing the work of a king; Duke Wen of Jin summoned the Son of Heaven twice, yet both times it stopped and did not punish, approving that they shepherded the feudal lords, presented tribute to the Son of Heaven and made the Zhou house submit. The Spring and Autumn Annals granted them the rank of hegemon; this is the principle of punishing the intention and not the wording.

魯隱之代桓立，祭仲之出忽立突，仇牧、孔父、荀息之死節，公子目夷不與楚國，此皆執權存國，行正世之義，守惓惓之心，春秋嘉氣義焉，故皆見之，復正之謂也。夷狄邾婁人、牟人、葛人，為其天王崩而相朝聘也，此其誅也。殺世子母弟，直稱君，明失親親也。魯季子之免罪，吳季子之讓國，明親親之恩也。閽殺吳子餘祭，見刑人之不可近。鄭伯髡原卒於會，諱弒，痛強臣專君，君不得為善也。衛人殺州籲，齊人殺無知，明君臣之義，守國之正也。衛人立晉，美得眾也。君將不言率師，重君之義也。正月公在楚，臣子思君，無一日無君之意也。誅受令，恩衛葆，以正囹圉之平也。言圍成，甲午祠兵，以別迫脅之罪，誅意之法也。作南門，刻桷丹楹，作雉門及兩觀，築三臺，新延廄，譏驕溢不恤下也。故臧孫辰請糴於齊，孔子曰：“君子為國，必有三年之積，一年不熟，乃請糴，失君之職也。”誅犯始者，省刑絕惡，疾始也。大夫盟於澶淵，刺大夫之專政也。諸侯會同，賢為主，賢賢也。春秋記纖芥之失，反之王道，追古貴信，結言而已，不至用牲盟而後成約，故曰：“齊侯衛侯苟命於蒲。”傳曰：“古者不盟，結言而退。”宋伯姬曰：“婦人夜出，傳母不在，不下堂。”曰：“古者周公東征則西國怨。”桓公曰：“無貯粟，無鄣谷，無易樹子，無以妾為妻。”宋襄公曰：“不鼓不成列，不阨人。”莊王曰：“古者、杅不穿，皮不蠹，則不出。君子篤於禮，薄於利；要其人，不要其土；告從不赦，不祥；強不陵弱。”齊頃公吊死視疾；孔父正色而立於朝，人莫過而致難乎其君；齊國佐不辱君命，而尊齊侯；此春秋之救文以質也。救文以質，見天下諸侯所以失其國者亦有焉，潞子欲閤中國之禮義，離乎夷狄，未合乎中國，所以亡也。

Duke Yin of Lu was installed in place of Huan; Zhai Zhong drove out Hu and installed Tu; Chou Mu, Kong Fu and Xun Xi died for their principles; and Prince Mu Yi did not give Chu away. All these were cases of holding the balance to preserve the state, carrying out the principle of setting the age right and keeping a sincere heart, and the Spring and Autumn Annals commends their principle, so all are made manifest; these are the wording of restoring what is right. The barbarians, the people of Zhulou, the people of Mou and the people of Ge, who visited each other for court and inquiry although the Son of Heaven had died, are punished for it. When an heir or a younger brother by the same mother is killed, calling the killer "ruler" directly shows that kinship was lost. Jizi of Lu escaping guilt and Jizi of Wu yielding the state show the kindness of loving kin. The gatekeeper's killing of the King of Wu, Yuji, shows that one should not be close to those who have been mutilated. When the Earl of Zheng, Kun Yuan, died at a meeting, the assassination is concealed, in grief that a powerful minister monopolized the ruler and the ruler could not do good. The people of Wei killing Zhou Xu and the people of Qi killing Wuzhi show the righteousness between ruler and subject and the correctness of keeping the state. The people of Wei installing Jin praises obtaining the multitude. Not saying "led an army" of a ruler is to stress the righteousness of the ruler. When the Duke was in Chu in the first month, ministers longed for their ruler, with the sense that there was not a day without a ruler. Punishing one who received orders and showing kindness to the guard of Wei is how the fairness of the prison is rectified. The wording "besieged Cheng" and "on jiawu day, the weapons sacrifice" are used to distinguish the crime of coercion, which is the method of punishing intention. The building of the South Gate, the carving of the rafters and red pillars, the building of the Zhi Gate and its two towers, the building of three terraces, and the new stables are criticisms of arrogance and overflow with no consideration for those below. So when Zang Sunchen asked Qi to sell him grain, Confucius said: "When a gentleman governs a state, he must have three years of reserves; to beg for grain after one poor harvest is to fail in the ruler's duty." It punishes those who offended from the beginning, reducing punishment and cutting off evil, hating the beginning. The grand masters making a covenant at Chanyuan criticizes grand masters monopolizing government. When feudal lords meet and gather, the worthy being the leader is honoring the worthy. The Spring and Autumn Annals records the slightest faults and returns to the kingly way, tracing back to antiquity and valuing good faith, which is merely to conclude by words and not to reach the use of sacrificial animals in a covenant before an agreement is made. So it says: "The Marquis of Qi and the Marquis of Wei gave each other their word at Pu." The Commentary says: "In ancient times they did not make covenants; they concluded by words and withdrew." Bo Ji of Song said: "A woman does not go out at night; if her governess is not present, she does not descend from the hall." It also said: "In ancient times when the Duke of Zhou campaigned in the east, the western states resented it." Duke Huan said: "Do not hoard grain, do not block the valleys, do not change the heir, and do not treat a concubine as a wife." Duke Xiang of Song said: "Do not sound the drums before the ranks are formed, and do not press men in a defile." King Zhuang said: "In ancient times, if the bowls were not broken and the hides not worm-eaten, they did not go out. A gentleman is earnest in ritual and thin in profit; he wants the people and not the land; and once he has accepted submission, he does not pardon again, which is inauspicious; the strong do not trample the weak." Duke Qing of Qi condoled with the dead and visited the sick; Kong Fu stood with upright bearing at court, and no one passed by to bring calamity to his ruler; Guo Zuo of Qi did not disgrace his ruler's command and honored the Marquis of Qi. This is how the Spring and Autumn Annals uses substance to rescue refinement. Using substance to rescue refinement, one can see the reasons why feudal lords of the world lost their states. The Viscount of Lu wanted to join the ritual and righteousness of the Central States and leave the barbarians, but had not yet merged with the Central States, and so he was lost.

吳王夫差行強於越，臣人之主，妾人之妻，卒以自亡，宗廟夷，社稷滅，其可痛也，長王投死，於戲，豈不哀哉！晉靈行無禮，處臺上，彈群臣，枝解宰人而棄之，漏陽處父之謀，使陽處父死，及患趙盾之諫，欲殺之，卒為趙盾所弒。晉獻公行逆理，殺世子申生，以驪姬立奚齊卓子，皆殺死，國大亂，四世乃定，幾為秦所滅，從驪姬起也。楚平王行無度，殺伍子苟父兄，蔡昭公朝之，因請其裘，昭公不與，吳王非之，舉兵加楚，大敗之，君舍乎君室，大夫舍乎大夫室，妻楚王之母，貪暴之所致也。晉厲公行暴道，殺無罪人，一朝而殺大臣三人，明年，臣下畏恐，晉國殺之。陳侯佗淫乎蔡，蔡人殺之。古者，諸侯出疆，必具左右，備一師，以備不虞，今陳侯恣以身出入民間，至死閭里之庸，甚非人君之行也。宋閔公矜婦人而心妒，與大夫萬博，萬譽魯莊公曰：“天下諸侯宜為君者，唯魯侯爾。”閔公妒其言，曰：“此虜也。”“爾虜焉故？魯侯之美惡乎至。”萬怒，搏閔公，絕脰，此以與臣博之過也。古者，人君立於陰，大夫立於陽，所以別位，明貴賤，今與臣相對而博，置婦人在側，此君臣無別也，故使萬稱他國，卑閔公之意，閔公借萬，而身與之博，下君自置，有辱之婦人之房，俱而矜婦人，獨得殺死之道也。春秋傳曰：“大夫不適君”遠此逼也。梁內役民無已，其民不能堪，使民比地為伍，一家亡，五家殺刑，其民曰：“先亡者封，後亡者刑。”君者，將使民以孝於父母，順於長老，守丘墓，承宗廟，世世祀其先，今求財不足，行罰如將不勝，殺戮如屠，仇讎其民，魚爛而亡，國中盡空，春秋曰：“梁亡。”亡者，自亡也，非人亡之也。虞公貪財，不顧其難，快耳悅目，受晉之璧，屈產之乘，假晉師道，還以自滅，宗廟破毀，社稷不祀，身死不葬，貪財之所致也。故春秋以此見物不空來。

King Fuchai of Wu acted forcefully toward Yue, treated another's ruler as a subject and another's wife as a concubine, and in the end destroyed himself; his ancestral temple was razed and his altars of state destroyed. How painful; the long king threw himself to death; alas, is that not sad! Duke Ling of Jin acted without ritual: standing on a terrace, he shot the ministers with a slingshot, dismembered the cook and threw him away, leaked the plan of Yang Chufu so that Yang Chufu died, and again, troubled by Zhao Dun's remonstrance, wanted to kill him, and in the end was assassinated by Zhao Dun. Duke Xian of Jin acted against principle, killed his heir Shensheng, installed Xiqi and Zhuozi because of Li Ji, and they were all killed; the state fell into great disorder and it took four generations to settle, and was almost destroyed by Qin, all arising from Li Ji. King Ping of Chu acted without restraint and killed the father and brother of Wu Zixu. When Duke Zhao of Cai came to court to him, he asked for his fur coat, and Duke Zhao would not give it. The King of Wu criticized this and sent troops against Chu, utterly defeated it, with the ruler living in the ruler's chambers and the grand masters living in the grand masters' chambers, and took the King of Chu's mother as wife; this was brought about by greed and violence. Duke Li of Jin practiced the way of violence and killed the innocent, killing three great ministers in one morning, and the next year his ministers, fearful, had the state of Jin kill him. Marquis Tuo of Chen committed licentious acts in Cai, and the people of Cai killed him. In ancient times when feudal lords went beyond their borders, they must have attendants on left and right and prepare a division of troops to guard against the unforeseen. Now the Marquis of Chen indulgently took only himself in and out among the people, and ended up dying in an ordinary village lane, which is not at all the conduct of a ruler. Duke Min of Song was proud toward women yet jealous inwardly, and played boxing-dice with his grand master Wan. Wan praised Duke Zhuang of Lu, saying: "Among the feudal lords of the world, only the Marquis of Lu is fit to be a ruler." Duke Min was jealous of these words and said: "This is a captive." "How would you, a captive, know? Where would the Marquis of Lu's good or bad come from?" Wan was angry, struck Duke Min and broke his neck; this was the fault of playing dice with a minister. In ancient times a ruler stood in the yin, and grand masters stood in the yang, in order to distinguish positions and make clear noble and lowly. Now facing a minister playing dice with a woman set beside them, there was no distinction between ruler and minister, which led Wan to praise another state and look down on Duke Min's intention. Duke Min borrowed Wan and played with him himself, placing himself as a lower ruler, shaming himself in a woman's room, being proud toward women, and alone got the way of being killed. The Commentary of the Spring and Autumn Annals says: "A grand master does not match his ruler." This is keeping far from that kind of pressure. Liang, within its borders, employed its people without limit, and the people could not bear it. It had the people grouped in fives by neighboring households, so that if one household fled, five households were subjected to the death penalty. The people said: "Those who flee first are enfeoffed, and those who flee later are punished." A ruler should make the people use filial piety toward parents, follow elders, guard graves, carry on the ancestral temple and sacrifice to their ancestors from generation to generation. Now when he sought wealth and found it insufficient, he applied punishments as if unable to cope, killed as if slaughtering, treated the people as enemies, and like a fish rotting from within he was destroyed, and the state was emptied entirely. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "Liang perished." Perished means it destroyed itself, not that others destroyed it. Duke Yu of Yu was greedy for wealth and heedless of its difficulty, delighted his ears and pleased his eyes, accepted the jade disc from Jin and the team of horses from Quchan, lent Jin's army a road, and on its return was himself destroyed, his ancestral temple ruined, his altars of state unsacrificed to, and he died without burial; this was brought about by greed for wealth. Thus from this the Spring and Autumn Annals shows that things do not come from nothing.

寶不虛出，自內出者，無匹不行，自外至者，無主不止，此其應也。楚靈王行強乎陳蔡，意廣以武，不顧其行；慮所美，內罷其眾，乾溪有物女，水盡則女見，水滿則不見，靈王舉發其國而役，三年不罷，楚國大怨；有行暴意，殺無罪臣成然，楚國大懣；公子棄疾卒令靈王父子自殺，而取其國，虞不離津澤，農不去疇土，而民相愛也，此非盈意之過

Treasures do not come out of emptiness. What goes out from within does not succeed without a match; what comes from without does not stop without a master. This is the verification. King Ling of Chu acted forcefully toward Chen and Cai, being expansive in intention and using arms, heedless of his conduct; what he thought fine wore out his people within. At Ganxi there was a water-spirit woman: when the water ran dry the woman appeared, and when the water was full she did not appear. King Ling mobilized his state to labor for it, and for three years did not stop, and the state of Chu resented it greatly; moreover he carried out his violent intentions and killed the innocent minister Chengran, and the state of Chu was greatly aggrieved. Prince Qiji in the end made King Ling and his sons kill themselves, and took his state. The foresters did not leave the ferries and marshes, the farmers did not leave their fields, and the people loved one another. Is this not the fault of fully indulging his own intentions

耶！魯莊公好宮室，一年三起臺，夫人內淫兩弟，弟兄子父相殺，國絕莫繼，為齊所存，夫

? Duke Zhuang of Lu loved palaces and chambers and built terraces three times in a year. His lady within committed licentious acts with her two younger brothers, brothers and sons and fathers killed one another, the state was cut off with no heir and was preserved by Qi; this was the consequence of the lady's

人淫之過也，妃匹貴妾，可不慎邪！此皆內自強，從心之敗已。見自強之敗，尚有正諫而不用，卒皆取亡，曹?諫其君曰：“戎眾以無義，君無自適。”君不聽，果死戎寇。伍子苟諫吳王，以為越不可不取，吳王不聽，至死伍子苟，還九年，越果大滅吳國。秦穆公將襲鄭，百里蹇叔諫曰：“千里而襲人者，未有不亡者也。”穆公不聽，師果大敗殽中，匹馬隻輪無反省。晉假道虞，虞公許之，宮之奇諫曰：“宴亡齒寒，虞虢之相救，非相賜也，君請勿許。”虞公不聽，後虞果亡於晉。春秋明此存亡道可觀也，觀乎蒲社，知驕溢之罰；觀乎許田，知諸侯不得專封；觀乎齊桓、晉文、宋襄、楚莊，知任賢奉上之功；觀乎魯隱、祭仲、叔武、孔父、荀息、仇牧、吳季子、公子目夷，知忠臣之效；觀乎楚公子比，知臣子之道，效死之義；觀乎潞子，知無輔自詛之敗；觀乎公在楚，知臣子之恩；觀乎漏言，知忠道之絕；觀乎獻六羽，知上下之差；觀乎宋伯姬，知貞婦之信；觀乎吳王夫差，知強陵弱；親乎晉獻公，知逆理近色之過；觀乎楚昭王之伐蔡，知無義之反；觀乎晉厲之妄殺無罪，知行暴之報；觀乎陳佗、宋閔，知妒淫之禍；觀乎虞公、梁亡，知貪財枉法之窮；觀乎楚靈，知苦民之壤；觀乎魯莊之起臺，知驕奢淫佚之失；觀乎衛侯朔，知不即召之罪；觀乎執凡伯，知犯上之法；觀乎晉卻缺之伐邾婁，知臣下作福之誅；觀乎公子翬，知臣窺君之意；觀乎世卿，知移權之敗。故明王視於冥冥，聽於無聲，天覆地載，天下萬國莫敢不悉靖其職，受命者不示臣下以知之至也，故道同則不能相先，情同則不能相使，此其教也。由此觀之，未有去人君之權，能制其勢者也；未有貴賤無差，能全其位者也；故君子慎之。

licentiousness. Can one be careless about choosing a consort or a noble concubine! These were all simply the ruin that comes from forcing one's own way within and following one's own heart's desire. Even having seen the ruin of those who forced their own way, there were still upright remonstrances that went unused, and in the end all brought about their own destruction. Cao Gui remonstrated with his ruler, saying: "The Rong are many and without righteousness; my lord should not go there yourself." The ruler did not listen and indeed died at the hands of the Rong raiders. Wu Zixu remonstrated with the King of Wu, holding that Yue could not but be taken; the King of Wu did not listen, and went so far as to kill Wu Zixu, and nine years later Yue indeed utterly destroyed Wu. When Duke Mu of Qin was about to attack Zheng by surprise, Baili and Jian Shu remonstrated: "No one who goes a thousand li to attack another by surprise has failed to be ruined." Duke Mu did not listen, and the army indeed was greatly defeated at Xiao, with not one horse or wheel returning. When Jin borrowed a road from Yu, the Duke of Yu agreed. Gong Zhiqi remonstrated: "When the lips are gone, the teeth are cold; Yu and Guo rescue each other, not bestow on each other; my lord, please do not agree." The Duke of Yu did not listen, and later Yu indeed perished at the hands of Jin. The Spring and Autumn Annals makes these clear, and the way of survival and ruin can be observed. Observing the altar of Pu, one knows the punishment for arrogance and overflow; observing the Xu fields, one knows that feudal lords cannot monopolize enfeoffment; observing Dukes Huan of Qi, Wen of Jin, Xiang of Song and Zhuang of Chu, one knows the merit of employing the worthy and serving one's superior; observing Yin of Lu, Zhai Zhong, Shu Wu, Kong Fu, Xun Xi, Chou Mu, Jizi of Wu and Prince Mu Yi, one knows the verification of loyal ministers; observing Prince Bi of Chu, one knows the way of ministers and sons and the righteousness of dying in one's duty; observing the Viscount of Lu, one knows the ruin of having no support and cursing oneself; observing the Duke being in Chu, one knows the kindness of ministers and sons; observing the leaking of words, one knows that the way of loyalty is cut off; observing the offering of six rows of feathers, one knows the distinction of high and low; observing Bo Ji of Song, one knows the good faith of a chaste woman; observing King Fuchai of Wu, one knows the strong trampling the weak; observing Duke Xian of Jin, one knows the fault of going against principle and being close to beauty; observing King Zhao of Chu attacking Cai, one knows the retribution for lacking righteousness; observing Duke Li of Jin killing the innocent recklessly, one knows the retribution for practicing violence; observing Tuo of Chen and Duke Min of Song, one knows the calamity of jealousy and licentiousness; observing the Duke of Yu and the ruin of Liang, one knows the dead end of greed for wealth and bending the law; observing King Ling of Chu, one knows the ruin of making the people suffer; observing Duke Zhuang of Lu building terraces, one knows the loss from arrogance, extravagance, licentiousness and indulgence; observing Shuo, Marquis of Wei, one knows the crime of not coming at once when summoned; observing the seizure of Fan Bo, one knows the law against offending one's superior; observing Que of Xi in Jin attacking Zhulou, one knows the punishment for subordinates making their own fortune; observing Gongzi Hui, one knows a minister's eye on his ruler's intention; observing hereditary ministers, one knows the ruin of shifting power. So the enlightened king sees in the obscure and hears in the silent, covering like Heaven and bearing like Earth, and the ten thousand states of the world dare not fail to fulfill their duties in quiet. One who has received the mandate does not show to his subordinates the utmost of what he knows. Therefore, when the Way is the same, one cannot take precedence over another; when feelings are the same, one cannot command another; this is teaching. Seen this way, there has never been anyone who removed the ruler's authority and yet could govern the situation; there has never been anyone who made no gradation between noble and lowly and yet could keep his position. Therefore the gentleman is careful.

王者，民之所往，君者，不失其群者也；故能使萬民往之，而得天下之群者，無敵於天下。弒君三十六，亡國五十二，小國德薄不朝聘，大國不與諸侯會聚，孤特不相守，獨居不同群，遭難莫之救，所以亡也。非獨公侯大人如此，生天地之間，根本微者，不可遭大風疾雨，立鑠消耗。衛侯朔固事齊襄，而天下患之；虞虢幷力，晉獻難之。晉趙盾，一夫之士也，無尺寸之土，一介之眾也，而靈公據霸主之餘尊，而欲誅之，窮變極軸，軸盡力竭，禍大及身，推盾之心，載小國之位，庸能亡之哉！故伍子苟，一夫之士也，去楚，幹闔廬，遂得意於吳，所託者誠是，何可御邪！楚王髡托其國於子玉得臣，而天下畏之；虞公托其國於宮之奇，晉獻患之；及髡殺得臣，天下輕之；虞公不用宮之奇，晉獻亡之；存亡之端，不可不知也。諸侯見加以兵，逃遁奔走，至於滅亡，而莫之救，平生之素行可見也。隱代桓立，所謂僅存耳，使無駭帥師滅極，內無諫臣，外無諸侯之救，載亦由是也，宋、蔡、衛國伐之，鄭因其力而取之，此無以異於遺重寶於道，而莫之守，見者掇之也。鄧、谷失地，而朝魯桓，鄧、谷失地，不亦宜乎！

The king is the one whom the people turn toward; the ruler is the one who does not lose his group. Therefore one who can make the ten thousand people turn toward him and obtain the group of the whole world has no enemy under Heaven. Thirty-six rulers were assassinated and fifty-two states were ruined. Small states with thin virtue did not pay court or visit, and large states did not meet with the feudal lords; the isolated did not keep one another, those living alone did not join a group, and when calamity struck there was no one to rescue them, and so they perished. It is not only so with dukes, marquises and great men: those born between Heaven and Earth whose roots are weak cannot meet a great wind or heavy rain, and are at once melted and consumed. Shuo, Marquis of Wei, certainly served Duke Xiang of Qi, yet the world was troubled by him; when Yu and Guo joined their strength, Duke Xian of Jin found it difficult. Zhao Dun of Jin was a lone gentleman, with not an inch of land nor a single follower, yet Duke Ling, relying on the surplus honor of a hegemon, wanted to kill him, exhausted every variation and pushed every stratagem to the limit, until his strength was spent and calamity reached his own person. Judging by Dun's heart, holding the position of a small state, how could they have destroyed him! So Wu Zixu was a lone gentleman who left Chu and sought out Helu, and so achieved his aims in Wu. What he entrusted himself to was truly right; what could resist it! King Kun of Chu entrusted his state to Zi Yu Dechen, and the world feared him; the Duke of Yu entrusted his state to Gong Zhiqi, and Duke Xian of Jin was troubled by him. When Kun killed Dechen, the world looked down on him; when the Duke of Yu did not employ Gong Zhiqi, Duke Xian of Jin destroyed him. The clues to survival and ruin must be known. When feudal lords saw troops being added against others, they fled and ran, until they were destroyed and no one rescued them, and one could see their ordinary conduct throughout life. Yin was installed in place of Huan, which is what is called merely being preserved; he had Wuhai lead an army to destroy Ji, with no remonstrating ministers within and no feudal lords coming to the rescue without, and Zai was the same. Song, Cai and Wei attacked it, and Zheng borrowed their strength to seize it, which is no different from heavy treasure dropped on the road with no one guarding it and whoever sees it picks it up. Deng and Gu lost their land and came to court to Duke Huan of Lu; was it not fitting that Deng and Gu lost their land!

紀侯之所以滅者，乃九世之也，一旦之言，危百世之嗣，故曰大去。衛人侵成，鄭入成，及齊師圍成，三被大兵，終滅，莫之救，所恃者安在？齊桓公欲行霸道，譚遂違命，故滅而奔莒，不事大而事小。曹伯之所以戰死於位，諸侯莫助憂者，幽之會，齊桓數合諸侯，曹小，未嘗來也，魯大國，幽之會，莊公不往，戎人乃窺兵於濟西，由見魯孤獨而莫之救也，此時大夫廢君命，專救危者。魯莊公二十七年，齊桓為幽之會，衛人不來，其明年，桓公怒而大敗之；及伐山戎，張旗陳獲，以驕諸侯；於是魯一年三築臺，亂臣比三起於內，夷狄之兵仍滅於外；衛滅之端，以失幽之會；亂之本，存親內蔽。邢未嘗會齊桓也，附晉又微，晉侯獲於韓而背之，淮之會是也，齊桓卒，豎刁、易牙之亂作，邢與狄伐其同姓，取之，其行如此，雖爾親，庸能親爾乎！是君也，其滅於同姓，衛侯毀滅邢是也。齊桓為幽之會，衛不至，桓怒而伐之，狄滅之，桓憂而立之。魯莊為柯之盟，劫汶陽，魯絕，桓立之。邢杞未嘗朝聘，齊桓見其滅，率諸侯而立之，用心如此，豈不霸哉！故以憂天下與之。

The reason the Marquis of Ji was destroyed lay in nine generations of a "(a rare character in the base text, lost in transcription)"; a single day's word endangered a hundred generations of heirs, and so it is called "the great departure". The people of Wei invaded Cheng, Zheng entered Cheng, and then the army of Qi besieged Cheng; it suffered great armies three times, and in the end was destroyed with no one to rescue it; where was what it relied on? Duke Huan of Qi wished to practice the way of the hegemon; Tan and Sui disobeyed his command, and so they were destroyed and Tan fled to Ju, not serving the great but serving the small. The reason the Earl of Cao died in battle in his position was that none of the feudal lords helped in his trouble; at the meeting of You, Duke Huan of Qi repeatedly gathered the feudal lords, and Cao, being small, never came; Lu was a large state, and at the meeting of You Duke Zhuang did not go, so the Rong peered at its troops west of the Ji, because they saw Lu isolated and with no one to rescue it. At this time the grand masters set aside the ruler's command and acted on their own to rescue it from danger. In the twenty-seventh year of Duke Zhuang of Lu, Duke Huan of Qi held the meeting of You; the people of Wei did not come, and the next year Duke Huan, angry, utterly defeated it; and when he attacked the Mountain Rong, he displayed the spoils in ranks to show off to the feudal lords. Thereupon Lu built terraces three times in a year, disorderly ministers rose three times in succession within, and barbarian armies still destroyed others without. The origin of Wei's ruin was losing the meeting of You; the root of its disorder lay in the blinding by those close within. Xing had never met Duke Huan of Qi, depended on Jin and was weak, and the Marquis of Jin, captured at Han, rebelled, as at the meeting of Huai. When Duke Huan of Qi died, the disorder of Shu Diao and Yi Ya arose, and Xing and the Di attacked and seized from its own kin of the same surname; such conduct, even among kin, how could they be close to you! This ruler was destroyed by those of the same surname, as in the case of the Marquis of Wei destroying Xing. When Duke Huan of Qi held the meeting of You, Wei did not arrive; Huan was angry and attacked it, the Di destroyed it, and Huan grieved and reestablished it. When Duke Zhuang of Lu held the covenant at Ke, seized Wenyang, and Lu was cut off, Huan reestablished it. Xing and Qi had never paid court or visits, and Duke Huan of Qi, seeing them destroyed, led the feudal lords and reestablished them. With such intention, how could he not be hegemon! Therefore the concern for the world was entrusted to him.

顏淵死，子曰：“天喪予。”子路死，子曰：“天祝予。”西狩獲麟，曰：“吾道窮，吾道窮。”三年，身隨而卒。階此而觀，天命成敗，聖人知之，有所不能救，命矣夫！

When Yan Yuan died, the Master said: "Heaven has destroyed me." When Zilu died, the Master said: "Heaven has cut me off." When the unicorn was captured in the western hunt, he said: "My Way has come to an end, my Way has come to an end." Three years later, he himself passed away. Seen this way, the success and failure of Heaven's mandate are known to the sage, and there are things he cannot rescue; it is destiny!

先晉獻之卒，齊桓為葵丘之會，再致其集；先齊孝未卒一年，魯僖乞師取谷；晉文之威，天子再致，先卒一年，魯僖公之心分而事齊，文公不事晉；先齊侯潘卒一年，文公如晉，衛侯、鄭伯皆不期來，齊侯已卒，諸侯果會晉大夫於新城；魯昭公以事楚之故，晉人不入，楚國強而得意，一年再會諸侯，伐強吳，為齊誅亂臣，遂滅厲，魯得其威以滅鄫，其明年如晉，無河上之難，先晉昭之卒一年無難；楚國內亂，臣弒君，諸侯會於平丘，謀誅楚亂臣，昭公不得與盟，大夫見執，吳大敗楚之黨六國於雞父，公如晉而大辱，春秋為之諱，而言有疾；由此觀之，所行從不足恃所事者，不可不慎，此亦存亡榮辱之要也。先楚莊王卒之三年，晉滅赤狄潞氏及甲氏留籲；先楚子審卒之三年，鄭服蕭魚；晉侯周卒一年，先楚子昭卒之二年，與陳蔡伐鄭而大克，其明年，楚屈建會諸侯，而張中國，卒之三年，諸夏之君朝於楚；楚子卷繼之，四年而卒，其國不為侵奪，而顧隆盛強大中國，不出年餘，何也？楚子昭蓋諸侯可者也，天下之疾其君者，皆赴愬而乘之，兵四五出，常以眾擊少，以專擊散，義之盡也；先卒四五年，中國內乖，齊、晉、魯、衛之兵分守，大國襲小，諸夏再會陳儀，齊不肯往，吳在其南，而二君殺，中國在其北，而齊、衛殺其君，慶封劫君亂國，石惡之徒，聚而成群，衛衎據陳儀而為諼，林父據戚而以畔，宋公殺其世子，魯大飢，中國之行，亡國之跡也，譬如於文、宣之際，中國之君，五年之中，五君殺，以晉靈之行，使一大夫立於斐林，拱揖指撝，諸侯莫敢不出，此猶隰之有泮也。

Before Duke Xian of Jin died, Duke Huan of Qi held the meeting of Kuiqiu and again summoned a gathering; one year before Duke Xiao of Qi died, Duke Xi of Lu begged for troops and seized Gu. Such was the might of Duke Wen of Jin that the Son of Heaven was summoned twice; one year before he died, the mind of Duke Xi of Lu was divided and he served Qi, and Duke Wen did not serve Jin. One year before Pan, Marquis of Qi, died, Duke Wen went to Jin, and the Marquis of Wei and the Earl of Zheng both came without prior agreement. After the Marquis of Qi had died, the feudal lords indeed met the grand masters of Jin at Xincheng. Because Duke Zhao of Lu served Chu, the people of Jin did not receive him. Chu was strong and satisfied, twice in one year met the feudal lords, attacked mighty Wu, executed disorderly ministers for Qi, and then destroyed Li. Lu obtained that might to destroy Zeng, and the next year went to Jin and had no trouble on the river. In the year before Duke Zhao of Jin died there was no trouble. Chu was in disorder within, a minister assassinated his ruler, and the feudal lords met at Pingqiu to plan to punish the disorderly ministers of Chu; Duke Zhao could not take part in the covenant, and his grand master was seized. Wu utterly defeated the six allied states of Chu at Jifu. The Duke went to Jin and suffered great humiliation, and the Spring and Autumn Annals concealed it on his behalf and said he was ill. Seen this way, if one's conduct is not enough to be relied on by those one serves, one must be careful; this too is the essential of survival and ruin, glory and disgrace. Three years before King Zhuang of Chu died, Jin destroyed the Chidi of Lu, together with Jia and Liuxu; three years before Zi Shen of Chu died, Zheng submitted at Xiaoyu; one year before Zhou, Marquis of Jin, died, and two years before Zi Zhao of Chu died, he joined with Chen and Cai in attacking Zheng and won a great victory. The next year Qu Jian of Chu met the feudal lords and enlarged the Central States. Three years after his death, the rulers of the Chinese states came to court at Chu. Zi Juan of Chu succeeded and died after four years, yet his state was not invaded and seized but instead flourished and strengthened the Central States, and within little more than a year; why? Zi Zhao of Chu was probably the acceptable one among the feudal lords; all in the world who hated their rulers came to him to lay their grievances and took the opportunity, and troops went out four or five times, often the many striking the few, the concentrated striking the scattered, with righteousness at its utmost. Four or five years before his death, the Central States were at odds within, and the troops of Qi, Jin, Lu and Wei were divided to guard, and large states made surprise attacks on small ones. The Chinese states twice met at Chenyi, and Qi would not go. Wu was in the south and two rulers were killed; the Central States were in the north and Qi and Wei killed their rulers. Qing Feng held his ruler hostage and threw the state into disorder, the likes of Shi E gathered into groups, Kan of Wei took Chenyi and deceived, Linfu held Qi and rebelled, the Duke of Song killed his heir, and Lu had a great famine. The conduct of the Central States was a sign of states ruined; for example, in the time of Wen and Xuan, among rulers of the Central States, five rulers were killed in five years. By the conduct of Duke Ling of Jin, a single grand master standing at Feilin, bowing, gesturing and signaling, made the feudal lords not dare not to come out; this was as if there were a bank in the wet lowland.

至意雖難喻，蓋聖人者，貴除天下之患，貴除天下之患，故春秋重而書天下之患遍矣，以為本於見天下之所以致患，其意欲以除天下之患，何謂哉？天下者無患，然後性可善，性可善，然後清廉之化流，清廉之化流，然後王道舉，禮樂興，其心在此矣。傳曰：“諸侯相聚而盟。”君子修國，曰：“此將率為也哉！”是以君子以天下為憂也，患乃至於弒君三十六，亡國五十二，細惡不絕之所致也。辭已喻矣，故曰立義以明尊卑之分，強幹弱枝，以明大小之職；別嫌疑之行，以明正世之義；採摭托意，以繅失禮；善無小而不舉，惡無小而不去，以純其美；別賢不肖，以明其尊；親近以來遠，因其國而容天下，名倫等物，不失其理，公心以是非，賞善誅惡，而王澤洽，始於除患，正一而萬物備，故曰：大矣哉其號，兩言而管天下，此之謂也。

Although the utmost intention is hard to make known, probably the sage's value lies in removing the troubles of the world. Because he valued removing the troubles of the world, the Spring and Autumn Annals gives weight to writing down the troubles of the world throughout. It holds that the root lies in seeing why the world falls into trouble; and what is meant by saying that its intention is to remove the troubles of the world? When the world has no trouble, then human nature can be good; when nature can be good, then the transformation of integrity flows; when the transformation of integrity flows, then the kingly way is raised and ritual and music flourish. His heart is here. The Commentary says: "The feudal lords gathered and made a covenant." The gentleman, cultivating the state, said: "This is what we are going to lead and do!" Therefore the gentleman is concerned for the world. The troubles went so far as thirty-six rulers assassinated and fifty-two states ruined, brought about by not cutting off small evils. The wording has already made it known. So it is said: it establishes principle to make clear the distinction of honored and lowly; strengthens the trunk and weakens the branches to make clear the duties of large and small; distinguishes suspect conduct to make clear the principle of setting the age right; gathers and entrusts intentions to correct the loss of ritual; leaves no goodness too small to be raised up and no evil too small to be removed, in order to purify the beautiful; distinguishes worthy from unworthy to make clear what is honored; draws the near close to bring in the far, taking the state to embrace the world, ranking titles and classes and arranging things in order without losing principle. It judges right and wrong with a public heart, rewards the good and punishes the evil, and the king's grace spreads. Beginning from removing trouble, setting one right and all things are complete. So it is said: great are its names, two words that govern the world; this is what is meant.

春秋，大義之所本耶！六者之科，六者之恉之謂也，然後援天端，布流物，而貫通其理，則事變散其辭矣。故志得失之所從生，而後差貴賤之所始矣；論罪源深淺定法誅，然後絕屬之分別矣；立義定尊卑之序，而後君臣之職明矣；載天下之賢方，表謙義之所在，則見覆正焉耳；幽隱不相踰，而近之則密矣，而後萬變之應無窮者，故可施其用於人，而不悖其倫矣。是以必明其統於施之宜，故知其氣矣，然後能食其志也；知其聲矣，而後能扶其精也；知其行矣，而後能遂其形也；知其物矣，然後能別其情也；故倡而民和之，動而民隨之，是知引其天性所好，而壓其情之所憎者也。如是則言雖約，說必布矣；事雖小，功必大矣；聲響盛化鉉於物，散入於理；德在天地，神明休集，並行而不竭，盈於四海而訟詠。書曰：“八音克諧，無相奪倫，神人以和。”乃是謂也，故明於情性，乃可與論為政，不然，雖勞無功，夙夜是寤，思慮惓心，猶不能睹，故天下有非者。三示當中，孔子之所謂非，尚安知通哉！

The Spring and Autumn Annals is probably the source of great principles! The six categories speak of the purport of six things. Only then, drawing on the source of Heaven, distributing and flowing it among things and threading through its principle, are the changes of events scattered within the wording. So it records where gain and loss come from, and only then does the grading of noble and lowly have its beginning; it discusses the depth and shallowness of the source of crimes to fix punishment by law, and only then are the distinctions of cutting off kinship settled; it establishes principles and fixes the order of honored and lowly, and only then are the duties of ruler and subject made clear; it records the worthy ones of the world and singles out where modest righteousness lies, and one sees only that it is restoring what is right. What is secluded and hidden does not overstep its bounds, and when brought near it is close, and then the response to ten thousand changes is inexhaustible, so it can be applied to people without going against human relations. Therefore one must be clear about the suitability of this thread in its application. So one who knows that qi can nourish that will; one who knows that sound can support that essence; one who knows that conduct can complete that form; one who knows things can distinguish that feeling. Thus, when one leads, the people respond; when one sets in motion, the people follow; this is knowing to lead what their nature likes and to suppress what their feelings hate. In this way, though words are brief, the speech is sure to spread; though the matter is small, the achievement is sure to be great. The echo of sound and the flourishing transformation thread through things and disperse into principle; virtue lies in Heaven and Earth, and spirit and light gather in blessing, proceeding side by side without exhaustion, filling the four seas with praise. The Book of Documents says: "The eight sounds are able to harmonize, none usurping another's order, and spirits and men are harmonized." This is what it means. So only when one understands feelings and nature can one discuss government with him. Otherwise, even if one toils without achievement, wakes at night and thinks until the mind is weary, one still cannot see it. So there are those in the world who err. Three times showing the center, what Confucius called an error, how could one then know how to understand it!

春秋二百四十二年之文，天下之大，事變之博，無不有也，雖然，大略之要，有十指。十指者，事之所繫也，王化之所由得流也。舉事變，見有重焉，一指也；見事變之所至者，一指也；因其所以至者而治之，一指也；強幹弱枝，大本小末，一指也；別嫌疑，異同類，一指也；論賢才之義，別所長之能，一指也；親近來遠，同民所欲，一指也；承周文而反之質，一指也；木生火，火為夏，天之端，一指也；切刺譏之所罰，考變異之所加，天之端，一指也。舉事變，見有重焉，則百姓安矣；見事變之所至者，則得失審矣；因其所以至而治之，則事之本正矣；強幹弱枝，大本小末，則君臣之分明矣；別嫌疑，異同類，則是非著矣；論賢才之義，別所長之能，則百官序矣；承周文而反之質，則化所務立矣；親近來遠，同民所欲，則仁恩達矣；木生火，火為夏，則陰陽四時之理相受而次矣；切刺譏之所罰，考變異之所加，則天所欲為行矣。統此而舉之，仁往而義來，德澤廣大，衍溢於四海，陰陽和調，萬物靡不得其理矣。說春秋凡用是矣，此其法也。

In the text of two hundred forty-two years of the Spring and Autumn Annals, as vast as the world and as broad as the changes of events, there is nothing that is not there. Even so, the general essentials come to ten pointers. The ten pointers are what events are tied to, and through which the transformation of the king is able to flow. Raising up the changes of events and seeing what is weighty is one pointer; seeing where the changes of events arrive is one pointer; governing by that through which they arrive is one pointer; strengthening the trunk and weakening the branches, making the root great and the tip small, is one pointer; distinguishing suspect cases and separating like kinds is one pointer; discussing the righteousness of worthy talents and distinguishing the abilities in which each excels is one pointer; drawing the near close and bringing in the far, uniting what the people desire, is one pointer; receiving the Zhou refinement and returning to substance is one pointer; wood gives birth to fire, fire is summer, the first sign of Heaven, is one pointer; and genuinely criticizing and mocking what is punished and examining where anomalies are applied, a sign of Heaven, is one pointer. When one raises the changes of events and sees what is weighty, the hundred families are at peace; when one sees where the changes of events arrive, gain and loss are examined; when one governs by that through which they arrive, the root of affairs is set right; when one strengthens the trunk and weakens the branches, making the root great and the tip small, the distinction of ruler and subject is clear; when one distinguishes suspect cases and separates like kinds, right and wrong are manifest; when one discusses the righteousness of worthy talents and distinguishes the abilities in which each excels, the hundred officials are in order; when one receives the Zhou refinement and returns to substance, what teaching and transformation strive for is established; when one draws the near close and brings in the far, uniting what the people desire, benevolence and kindness reach everywhere; when wood gives birth to fire and fire is summer, the principles of yin and yang and the four seasons receive one another and have order; when one genuinely criticizes and mocks what is punished and examines where anomalies are applied, what Heaven wants done is carried out. Taking all these together and raising them up, benevolence goes forth and righteousness comes in, virtue and grace are broad and great, overflowing to the four seas, yin and yang are in harmony, and none of the ten thousand things fails to obtain its principle. These are all that are used in lecturing on the Spring and Autumn Annals; this is the method.

惟聖人能屬萬物於一，而系之元也，終不及本所從來而承之，不能遂其功，是以春秋變一謂之元，元猶原也，其義以隨天地終始也，故人惟有終始也，而生不必應四時之變，故元者，為萬物之本，而人之元在焉，安在乎，乃在乎天地之前，故人雖在天氣及奉天氣者，不得與天元，本天元命，而共違其所為也。故春正月者，承天地之所為也，繼天之所為而終之也，其道相與共功持業，安容言乃天地之元，天地之元，奚為於此，惡施於人，大其貫承意之理矣。

Only the sage can bring the ten thousand things together into one and tie them to the yuan. If one does not in the end return to the root from which one came and receive it, one cannot achieve merit. For this reason the Spring and Autumn Annals changed "one" into "yuan". Yuan is like "source", and its meaning follows Heaven and Earth from end to beginning. So people only have an end and a beginning, and their birth does not necessarily respond to the changes of the four seasons. So yuan is the root of the ten thousand things, and the yuan of man is there. Where is it? It is before Heaven and Earth. So even if a person is within the qi of Heaven and serves the qi of Heaven, he cannot, together with the original of Heaven and the mandate rooted in the original of Heaven, jointly go against what it does. So the first month of spring is receiving what Heaven and Earth do, continuing what Heaven does and bringing it to an end, and the Way jointly keeps the work; how can one say that it is then the yuan of Heaven and Earth? Why the yuan of Heaven and Earth is here and how it is applied to people is a matter of the greatness of the principle that threads through and receives the intention.

能說鳥獸之類者，非聖人所欲說也；聖人所欲說，在於說仁義而理之，知其分科條別，貫所附，明其義之所審，勿使嫌疑，是乃聖人所貴而已矣；不然，傳於眾辭，觀於眾物，說不急之言，而以惑後進者，君子之所甚惡也，奚以為哉！聖人思慮，不厭晝日，繼之以夜，然後萬物察者仁義矣，由此言之，尚自為得之哉！故曰：於乎！為人師者，可無慎邪！夫義出於經，經，傳大本也，棄營勞心也，苦志盡情，頭白齒落，尚不合自錄也哉！

Being able to speak of birds, beasts and the like is not what the sage wants to speak of. What the sage wants to speak of lies in speaking of benevolence and righteousness and governing, knowing how to divide categories and distinguish items, threading through what is attached, and making clear what righteousness examines, so as to leave no suspicion; this is what the sage values, and that is all. Otherwise, to relate many phrases and observe many things, speaking of things that are not urgent in order to confuse those who come after, is what the gentleman most detests; what is it for? The sage thinks in the daytime without weariness and continues into the night, and only then are the ten thousand things examined in benevolence and righteousness. Speaking from this, how could one still think of oneself as having attained it! So it is said: alas! Can one who is a teacher of others be anything but careful! Righteousness comes out of the classics, and the classics are the great root of the commentaries. If one abandons the classics and wearies the mind, embitters the will and exhausts the feelings until the hair is white and the teeth fall out, would one still not fit what one has recorded!

人始生有大命，是其體也，有變命存其間者，其政也，政不齊，則人有忿怒之志，若將施危難之中，而時有隨遭者，神明之所接，絕屬之符也，亦有變其間，使之不齊如此，不可不省之，省之則重政之本矣。

When a person is first born he has a great mandate, which is his body; there are changing mandates existing in between, which is his governance. If governance is not even, people have a will of anger and resentment, as if about to act in danger and difficulty, and at times there are mandates that follow and mandates that are encountered, which are the tokens by which the spirits connect and kinship is cut off. There are also changes in between that make it uneven to this extent, and one cannot fail to examine them. If one examines, one places weight on the root of governance.

撮以為一，進義誅惡，絕之本，而以其施，此與湯武同而有異，湯武用之，治往故。春秋明得失，差貴賤，本之天王之所失天下者，使諸侯得以大亂之說，而後引而反之，故曰：博而明，深而切矣。

Gathering them into one, advancing righteousness and punishing evil, cutting it off at the root and applying it in what is bestowed. This is the same as Tang and Wu and also different. Tang and Wu used it to govern the reasons of the past. The Spring and Autumn Annals makes clear gain and loss, grades the noble and lowly, bases itself on the account of how the Son of Heaven lost the world and let the feudal lords fall into great disorder, and then draws it back. So it is said: broad and clear, deep and incisive.

天地之生萬物也以養人，故其可適者，以養身體；其可威者，以為容服；禮之所為興也。劍之在左，青龍之象也；刀之在右，白虎之象也；韍之在前，赤鳥之象也；冠之在首，玄武之象也；四者、人之盛飾也。夫能通古今，別然不然，乃能服此也。蓋玄武者，貌之最嚴有威者也，其像在後，其服反居首，武之至而不用矣。聖人之所以超然，雖欲從之，末由也已！夫執介冑而後能拒敵者，故非聖人之所貴也，君子顯之於服，而勇武者消其志於貌也矣。故文德為貴，而威武為下，此天下之所以永全也。於春秋何以言之？孔父義形於色，而奸臣不敢容邪；虞有宮之奇，而獻公為之不寐；晉厲之強，中國以寢屍流血不已。故武王克殷，裨冕而搢笏，虎賁之士說劍，安在勇猛必在武殺然後威，是以君子所服為上矣，故望之儼然者，亦已至矣，豈可不察乎！

Heaven and Earth give birth to the ten thousand things in order to nourish people, so what suits the mouth is used to nourish the body, and what is awe-inspiring is used as dress and bearing. Ritual arose from this. The sword on the left is the image of the Azure Dragon; the knife on the right is the image of the White Tiger; the apron in front is the image of the Vermilion Bird; the cap on the head is the image of the Black Tortoise-Snake. These four are the full adornment of a person. Only one who can understand past and present and distinguish what is so from what is not so can wear them. The Black Tortoise-Snake has the most severe appearance and awe-inspiring bearing, its form is behind yet its garb sits at the head, which is martial prowess carried to the utmost without being used. This is how the sage rises above, and even if one wanted to follow, there is no way to begin! To hold armor and helmets and then be able to resist enemies is not what the sage values to begin with. The gentleman shows in his clothing, while the martial man's will dissolves in his appearance. So civil virtue is valued and martial might is low; this is how the world is kept whole forever. What does the Spring and Autumn Annals base this on? Kong Fu's righteousness took form in his bearing, and treacherous ministers did not dare harbor evil; Yu had Gong Zhiqi, and Duke Xian of Jin therefore could not sleep; the strength of Duke Li of Jin made the Central States lie in corpses and flow with blood without end. So when King Wu conquered Yin, he wore a robe and ceremonial cap and tucked his tablet in his sash, and the Tiger Warriors unbuckled their swords. How could courage lie only in killing by force before awe is achieved? For this reason the gentleman puts what he wears first, so that those who look at him find him solemn and already arrived at it; how could one fail to observe this!

春秋至意有二端，不本二端之所從起，亦未可與論災異也，小大微著之分也。夫覽求微細於無端之處，誠知小之將為大也，微之將為著也，吉凶未形，聖人所獨立也，雖欲從之，末由也已，此之謂也。故王者受命，改正朔，不順數而往，必迎來而受之者，授受之義也。故聖人能繫心於微，而致之著也。是故春秋之道，以元之深，正天之端，以天之端，正王之政，以王之政，正諸侯之即位，以諸侯之即位，正竟內之治，五者俱正，而化大行。故書日蝕，星隕，有蜮，山崩，地震，夏大雨水，冬大雨雹，隕霜不殺草，自正月不雨，至於秋七月，有鸛鵒來巢，春秋異之，以此見悖亂之徵，是小者不得大，微者不得著，雖甚末，亦一端，孔子以此效之，吾所以貴微重始是也，因惡夫推災異之象於前，然後圖安危禍亂於後者，非春秋之所甚貴也，然而春秋舉之以為一端者，亦欲其省天譴，而畏天威，內動於心志，外見於事情，修身審己，明善心以反道者也，豈非貴微重始、慎終推效者哉！

The Spring and Autumn Annals has two ultimate aims; if one does not trace back to where the two beginnings arise, one cannot discuss calamities and anomalies with it, which is the distinction between small and large, subtle and manifest. By looking for the minute where there is no clue yet, one truly knows that the small is about to become large and the subtle about to become manifest. Before good or ill fortune takes shape, the sage establishes himself alone; even if one wished to follow, there would be no way to begin, and this is what it means. So when a true king receives the mandate, he reforms the calendar and the first day of the year, does not go along following the old count but must welcome and receive the new, which is the meaning of giving and receiving. So the sage can fix his mind on the subtle and thereby reach the manifest. Therefore the way of the Spring and Autumn Annals is to use the depth of the origin to rectify the beginning of Heaven; to use the beginning of Heaven to rectify the king's governance; to use the king's governance to rectify the accession of the lords; and to use the lords' accession to rectify the government within their borders. When these five are all rectified, teaching and transformation are greatly carried out. Therefore it records solar eclipses, falling stars, water-sprites, mountain collapses, earthquakes, great summer rains, great winter hail, frost that did not kill the grass, no rain from the first month to the seventh month of autumn, and mynahs coming to nest; the Annals regarded these as anomalies, and from them one sees the evidence of perversity and disorder. This is the small unable to become large and the subtle unable to become manifest, and even at the very end, it is still one beginning. Confucius used this as proof, and this is why I value the subtle and stress the beginning. Hence I dislike those who first infer the images of calamities and anomalies and only afterward plan for safety, danger, misfortune and disorder; this is not what the Annals values most. Yet the Annals raises them as one beginning in order to have one examine Heaven's rebuke and fear Heaven's might, with aims stirring within and affairs showing without, cultivating oneself and examining oneself, clarifying the good heart in order to return to the Way; is this not valuing the subtle, stressing the beginning, and being careful at the end while inferring the proofs!

有非力之所能致而自至者，西狩獲麟，受命之符是也，然後托乎春秋正不正之間，而明改制之義，一統乎天子，而加憂於天下之憂也，務除天下所患，而欲以上通五帝，下極三王，以通百王之道，而隨天之終始，博得失之效，而考命象之為，極理以盡情性之宜，則天容遂矣。百官同望異路，一之者在主，率之者在相。

There are things which human strength cannot bring about, yet they arrive of themselves: the capture of a qilin in a western hunt was a sign of receiving the mandate of Heaven. After this he lodged principle between what the Annals rectifies and does not rectify in order to make clear the meaning of reforming institutions, to unify the world under the Son of Heaven, and to take the world's worries as his own heavier worry, seeking to remove what troubles the world. He also reached upward to the Five Emperors and downward to the end of the Three Kings in order to link the way of the hundred kings, followed the beginning and end of Heaven, broadly examined the proofs of gain and loss, observed the workings of mandate and image, pushed principle to its limit in order to exhaust what suits nature and feeling, and so the bearing of Heaven was made compliant. The hundred officials look up alike but take different roads; what can unify them lies in the ruler, and what can lead them lies in the chancellor.

仲尼之作春秋也，上探正天端，王公之位，萬民之所欲，下明得失，起賢才，以待後聖，故引史記，理往事，正是非，見王公，史記十二公之間，皆衰世之事，故門人惑，孔子曰：“吾因其行事，而加乎王心焉，以為見之空言，不如行事博深切明。”子貢、閔子、公肩子言其切而為國家資也。其為切，而至於殺君亡國，奔走不得保社稷，其所以然，是皆不明於道，不覽於春秋也。故衛子夏言：“有國家者，不可不學春秋，不學春秋，則無以見前後旁側之危，則不知國之大柄，君之重任也。故或脅窮失國，揜殺於位，一朝至爾，苟能述春秋之法，致行其道，豈徒除禍哉！乃堯舜之德也。”故世子曰：“功及子孫，光輝百世，聖人之德，莫美於恕。”故予先言：“春秋詳己而略人，因其國而容天下。”春秋之道，大得之則以王，小得之則以霸。故曾子、子石盛美齊侯，安諸侯，尊天子，霸王之道，皆本於仁，仁，天心，故次之以天心。愛人之大者，莫大於思患而豫防之，故蔡得意於吳，魯得意於齊，而春秋皆不告。故次以言：怨人不可邇，敵國不可狎，攘竊之國不可使久親，皆防患、為民除患之意也。不愛民之漸，乃至於死亡，故言楚靈王、晉厲公生弒於位，不仁之所致也。故善宋襄公不厄人，不由其道而勝，不如由其道而敗，春秋貴之，將以變習俗，而成王化也。故子夏言：“春秋重人，諸譏皆本此，或奢侈使人憤怨，或暴虐賊害人，終皆禍及身。”故子池言：“魯莊築臺，丹楹刻桷；晉厲之刑刻意者；皆不得以壽終。”上奢侈，刑又急，皆不內恕，求備於人。故次以春秋，緣人情，赦小過，而傳明之曰：君子辭也。孔子明得失，見成敗，疾時世之不仁，失王道之體，故緣人情，赦小過，傳又明之曰：君子辭也。孔子曰：“吾因行事，加吾王心焉，假其位號，以正人倫，因其成敗，以明順逆。

Zhongni composed the Spring and Autumn Annals, looking upward to rectify the beginning of Heaven, the ranks of kings and dukes, and the desires of the ten thousand people, and downward to make clear gain and loss and raise worthy talents in order to await later sages. So he drew on the historical records, set in order past events, rectified right and wrong, and made the conduct of kings and dukes manifest. What the records note across the twelve dukes were all matters of a declining age, so his disciples were perplexed. Confucius said: "I borrow those events that have already happened and add the heart of a true king, because I feel that empty theory is not as broad, deep and clear as borrowing events." Zigong, Master Min and Gong Jianzi all said that it was practical and enough to be drawn upon by states. It was practical to the point of rulers murdered, states lost, and men fleeing without being able to keep their altars; the reason this happens is always that they did not understand the Way and did not read the Annals. So Zixia of Wei said: "Those who hold a state cannot but study the Spring and Autumn Annals. Without studying it, one has no way to see the dangers before, behind, left and right, and does not know the great power of the state and the heavy duty of the ruler. So some are coerced and driven into straits and lose their states, or are ambushed and killed in their seats, arriving within a single morning. If one can recite the laws of the Annals and exert oneself to carry out its way, how could it only remove misfortune! It is the virtue of Yao and Shun." So Shizi said: "Merit extending to descendants and radiance passed down to a hundred generations, in the virtue of a sage nothing is finer than forgiveness." So Yu Xian said: "The Annals is detailed about oneself and sparing toward others, and by means of one state it embraces the world." The way of the Annals is such that one who gains it greatly may become king, and one who gains it slightly may become hegemon. So Zengzi and Zishi highly praised the Marquis of Qi for settling the lords and honoring the Son of Heaven. The ways of hegemon and king are both rooted in humaneness. Humaneness is the heart of Heaven, so next it speaks of the heart of Heaven. Among the great expressions of loving people, none is greater than thinking of misfortune and guarding against it beforehand. So Cai was satisfied in Wu and Lu was satisfied in Qi, yet the Annals does not write either as victory reports. So next it also says: those with resentments are not to be drawn close, enemy states are not to be treated with familiarity, and thieving states are not to be allowed to attach themselves for long, all of which mean guarding against trouble and removing trouble for the people. Not loving the people gradually leads to death and ruin, so it speaks of King Ling of Chu and Duke Li of Jin, who were assassinated in their seats while alive, which was brought on by inhumaneness. So it praises Duke Xiang of Song for not pressing people into a corner: to win without following the Way is not as good as to lose while following the Way. The Annals valued him in order to change customs with this and complete the teaching of a true king. So Zixia said: "The Annals values people, and every criticism is rooted in this. Some are extravagant and so cause resentment, some are cruel and harm people, and in the end disaster falls on themselves." So Zichi said: "Duke Zhuang of Lu built a terrace, painted its pillars red and carved its rafters, and Duke Li of Jin was harsh in punishment; neither lived out their years." Extravagance above and haste in punishment both come from lack of forgiveness within and demanding completeness from others. So next it uses the Annals' following of human feeling and pardoning small faults, and the commentary states clearly: "This is the wording of the gentleman." Confucius made gain and loss clear, saw success and failure, grieved at an age without humaneness that had lost the substance of the kingly Way, and so followed human feeling and pardoned small faults, and the commentary again states clearly: "This is the wording of the gentleman." Confucius said: "I borrow events and add my own heart of a true king, borrow those titles in order to rectify human relationships, and borrow success and failure to make clear compliance and rebellion.

”故其所善，則桓文行之而遂，其所惡，則亂國行之終以敗。故始言大惡，殺君亡國，終言赦小過，是亦始於麤粗，終於精微，教化流行，德澤大洽，天下之人，人有士君子之行，而少過矣，亦譏二名之意也。

" So what he praises, Duke Huan and Duke Wen carried out successfully; what he dislikes, the disordered states carried out and finally failed. So it begins by speaking of great evils, the murder of rulers and the ruin of states, and ends by speaking of pardoning small faults; this too begins with the coarse and ends in the subtle. When teaching spreads and virtue's kindness is everywhere harmonious, everyone in the world has the conduct of a scholar and gentleman, and faults are few; this too is the meaning of criticizing the two names.

天高其位而下其施，藏其形而見其光；高其位，所以為尊也，下其施，所以為仁也，藏其形，所以為神，見其光，所以為明；故位尊而施仁，藏神而見光者，天之行也。故為人主者，法天之行，是故內深藏，所以為神，外博觀，所以為明也，任群賢，所以為受成，乃不自勞於事，所以為尊也，泛愛群生，不以喜怒賞罰，所以為仁也。故為人主者，以無為為道，以不私為寶，立無為之位，而乘備具之官，足不自動，而相者導進，口不自言，而擯者讚辭，心不自慮，而群臣效當，故莫見其為之，而功成矣，此人主所以法天之行也。為人臣者，法地之道，暴其形，出其情，以示人，高下險易，堅耎剛柔，肥轢美惡，累可就財也，故其形宜不宜，可得而財也。為人臣者，比地貴信，而悉見其情於主，主亦得而財之，故王道威而不失，為人臣常竭情悉力，而見其短長，使主上得而器使之，而猶地之竭竟其情也，故其形宜可得而財也。

Heaven raises its position high and sends its bestowal downward; it hides its form and displays its light. By raising its position it completes its dignity; by sending bestowal downward it completes its humaneness; by hiding its form it completes its divinity; by displaying its light it completes its brightness. So dignified in position and humane in bestowal, hidden in spirit and showing light, this is the operation of Heaven. So one who is a ruler of men takes as model the operation of Heaven: hence by hiding deeply within he completes his divinity; by observing broadly outward he completes his brightness; by employing many worthy men he receives ready-made accomplishments; and so, not laboring himself in affairs, he completes his dignity; by loving all living beings universally and not rewarding or punishing by his own joy or anger, he completes his humaneness. So one who is a ruler of men takes non-action as his way and non-selfishness as his treasure, stands in the position of non-action, and relies on a complete staff of officials: his feet do not move on their own, and the ritual attendant leads him forward; his mouth does not speak on its own, and the usher speaks the words for him; his mind does not plan on its own, and the ministers present suitable methods. So one does not see him doing anything, yet the achievements are already completed. This is why a ruler takes as model the operation of Heaven. One who is a minister takes as model the way of Earth: he displays his own form and brings out his own feelings for others to see. High and low, steep and easy, hard and soft, firm and gentle, fat and lean, fine and coarse (the received text writes "fat-trampled," where the second character is an error for "lean"), all can be adjudged by what is at hand, so whether the form is fitting or not can be obtained and decided. One who is a minister, comparing himself with Earth, values trustworthiness and shows his feelings entirely to the ruler, and the ruler can also judge him. So the kingly Way has awe without failing. A minister who always exhausts his feelings and strength and shows his own strengths and shortcomings lets his ruler use him as a tool, as the Earth entirely offers up its feelings. So whether his form is fitting can be obtained and decided.

君人者，國之元，發言動作，萬物之樞機，樞機之發，榮辱之端也，失之豪釐，駟不及追。故為人君者，謹本詳始，敬小慎微，志如死灰，形如委衣，安精養神，寂寞無為，休形無見影，揜聲無出響，虛心下士，觀來察往，謀於眾賢，考求眾人，得其心，遍見其情，察其好惡，以參忠佞，考其往行，驗之於今，計其蓄積，受於先賢，釋其讎怨，視其所爭，差其黨族，所依為臬，據位治人，用何為名，累日積久，何功不成？可以內參外，可以小占大，必知其實，是謂開闔。君人者，國之本也，夫為國，其化莫大於崇本，崇本則君化若神，不崇本則君無以兼人，無以兼人，雖峻刑重誅，而民不從，是所謂驅國而棄之者也，患庸甚焉！何謂本？曰：天地人，萬物之本也，天生之，地養之，人成之；天生之以孝悌，地養之以衣食，人成之以禮樂，三者相為手足，合以成體，不可一無也；無孝悌，則亡其所以生，無衣食，則亡其所以養，無禮樂，則亡其所以成也；三者皆亡，則民如麋鹿，各從其欲，家自為俗，父不能使子，君不能使臣，雖有城郭，名曰虛邑，如此，其君河塊而僵，莫之危而自危，莫之喪而自亡，是謂自然之罰，自然之罰至，裹襲石室，分障險阻，猶不能逃之也。明主賢君，必於其信，是故肅慎三本，郊祀致敬，共事祖禰，舉顯孝悌，表異孝行，所以奉天本也；秉耒躬耕，採桑親蠶，墾草殖穀，開闢以足衣食，所以奉地本也；立辟廱庠序，修孝悌敬讓，明以教化，感以禮樂，所以奉人本也；

One who is a ruler is the origin of the state. His speech and actions are the pivot of the ten thousand things. Once the pivot moves, it is the beginning of glory or disgrace. If one is off by a hair, a carriage with four horses cannot catch up. So a ruler is careful of the root and examines the beginning, and is reverent even about small things: his will is like ash that has gone out, his body like a discarded garment, he steadies his spirit, is silent and does nothing, lets his form rest without producing a shadow, and muffles his voice without producing an echo; he treats scholars with an empty mind, observes the future and examines the past, plans with the many worthy men, consults the many, wins their hearts, sees their feelings everywhere, notes their likes and dislikes to test loyalty and flattery; he examines their past conduct and verifies it today; he calculates what has been accumulated and accepts the instruction of earlier worthies; he resolves grudges and sees what they are contending over; he ranks their factions and takes what they rely on as the standard. Governing people from his position, using what as a title, accumulating day upon day, what accomplishment will not be completed? He can use the inner to test the outer, can use the small to judge the large, and will surely know the reality; this is called opening and closing. One who is a ruler is the root of the state. In governing a state, no teaching is greater than honoring the root. If he honors the root, the ruler's teaching is like the divine; if he does not honor the root, the ruler has no way to lead the multitude together. If he cannot lead the multitude, then even with harsh punishments and heavy executions the people will not obey, which is what is called driving the state away and abandoning it, and what disaster is worse than this! What is the root? It is Heaven, Earth and humans, the root of the ten thousand things. Heaven gives birth to them, Earth nourishes them, and humans complete them. Heaven gives birth through filial piety and fraternal respect, Earth nourishes through clothing and food, and humans complete through ritual and music. These three act as each other's hands and feet, and together form one body; none can be missing. Without filial piety and fraternal respect, there is nothing by which to give birth; without clothing and food, nothing by which to nourish; without ritual and music, nothing by which to complete. If all three are lost, the people are like deer, each following his desires, every household making its own customs, a father cannot command a son, a ruler cannot command ministers, and even if there are city walls they are only called empty towns. In such a case that ruler falls stiff like a clod of earth (the received text writes "river clod," where "river" is an error for "how"); no one harms him yet he is endangered by himself, no one destroys him yet he perishes of himself, and this is called a natural punishment. When natural punishment arrives, even wrapped in a stone chamber and separated by barriers, he still cannot escape. Enlightened rulers and worthy lords must base themselves on good faith, and so respectfully and carefully handle the three roots: performing suburban sacrifices to express reverence, respectfully serving ancestors and fathers, recommending and promoting filial piety and fraternal respect, and commending exceptional filial conduct, in order to serve the root of Heaven; taking plow and spade in hand and cultivating personally, picking mulberry and rearing silkworms personally, clearing weeds and planting grain, and opening land to make clothing and food sufficient, in order to serve the root of Earth; setting up the Bi Yong, village schools and academies, cultivating filial piety, fraternal respect and courteous yielding, making people understand through teaching and transforming them with ritual and music, in order to serve the root of humans.

三者皆奉，則民如子弟，不敢自專，邦如父母，不待恩而愛，不須嚴而使，雖野居露宿，厚於宮室，如是者，其君安河而臥，莫之助而自強，莫之綏而自安，是謂自然之賞，自然之賞至，雖退讓委國而去，百姓襁負其子，隨而君之，君亦不得離也，故以德為國者，甘於飴蜜，固於膠漆，是以聖賢勉而崇本，而不敢失也，君人者，國之證也，不可先倡，感而後應，故居倡之位，而不行倡之勢，不居和之職，而以和為德，常盡其下，故能為之上也。

When these three are served, the people are like sons and younger brothers and dare not act on their own; the state is like parents, and they love without waiting for kindness to be bestowed and obey without relying on awe. Even living in the open they have deeper feeling than if they lived in palaces. In such a case that ruler lies at ease (the received text writes "at river," where "river" is an error for "thus"); no one helps him yet he is strong of himself, no one soothes him yet he is peaceful of himself, and this is called a natural reward. When natural reward arrives, even if he yielded and handed over the state and left, the common people would carry their children on their backs in cloths and follow him, taking him as their ruler, and the ruler could not leave them. So one who governs a state by virtue is sweeter than honey and firmer than glue and lacquer. Therefore sages strive to honor the root and dare not fail in it. One who is a ruler is the proof of the state and should not himself lead first but respond after there is resonance. So though he occupies the position of one who leads, he does not exercise the might of leading; he does not hold the duty of harmony, yet takes harmony as his virtue, always devotes his heart to those under him, and so can be their superior.

體國之道，在於尊神。尊者，所以奉其政也，神者，所以就其化也，故不尊不畏，不神不化。夫欲為尊者，在於任賢；欲為神者，在於同心；賢者備股肱，則君尊嚴而國安；同心相承，則變化若神；莫見其所為，而功德成，是謂尊神也。天積眾精以自剛，聖人積眾賢以自強；天序日月星辰以自光，聖人序爵祿以自明；天所以剛者，非一精之力，聖人所以強者，非一賢之德也。故天道務盛其精，聖人務眾其賢；盛其精而壹其陽，眾其賢而同其心；壹其陽，然後可以致其神，同其心，然後可以致其功；是以建治之術，貴得賢而同心。為人君者，其要貴神，神者，不可得而視也，不可得而聽也，是故視而不見其形，聽而不聞其聲；聲之不聞，故莫得其響，不見其形，故莫得其影；莫得其影，則無以曲直也，莫得其響，則無以清瘻也；無以曲直，則其功不可得而敗，無以清瘻，則其名不可得而度也。所謂不見其形者，非不見其進止之形也，言其所以進止不可得而見也；所謂不聞其聲者，非不聞其號令之聲也，言其所以號令不可得而聞也；不見不聞，是謂冥昏，能冥則明，能昏則彰，能冥能昏，是謂神。人君貴居冥而明其位，處陰而向陽，惡人見其情，而欲知人之心。是故為人君者，執無源之慮，行無端之事，以不求奪，以不問問；吾以不求奪，則我利矣，彼以不出出，則彼費矣；吾以不問問，則我神矣，彼以不對對，則彼情矣。故終日問之，彼不知其所對，終日奪之，彼不知其所出，吾則以明，而彼不知其所亡。故人臣居陽而為陰，人君居陰而為陽，陰道尚形而露情，陽道無端而貴神。

The way of governing a state lies in dignity and divinity. Dignity is that by which his government is upheld; divinity is that by which his teaching is completed. So without dignity no one fears, and without divinity none can be transformed. To be dignified, one must employ worthy men; to be divine, one must be of one mind. When worthy men are fully in place as limbs, the ruler is dignified and the state at peace; when of one mind and receiving one another, transformation is like the divine; one does not see what he does, yet merit and virtue are already completed, which is called dignified divinity. Heaven gathers many essences to make itself firm, and the sage gathers many worthy men to make himself strong; Heaven arranges the sun, moon and stars to make itself bright, and the sage arranges ranks and salaries to make himself clear. Heaven is firm not through the strength of one essence; the sage is strong not through the virtue of one worthy man. So the Way of Heaven strives to make its essences abundant, and the sage strives to make his worthy men many. He makes his essences abundant and concentrates his yang; he multiplies his worthy men and unifies their hearts. Concentrating his yang, he can then summon its spirit; unifying their hearts, he can then bring about the achievement. Therefore in establishing the art of governing, what is valued is gaining worthy men and being of one mind. The essential of a ruler lies in valuing the divine. The divine cannot be obtained by sight or hearing. Hence one looks and cannot see his form, and listens and cannot hear his voice. Since the voice cannot be heard, no one obtains an echo; since the form cannot be seen, no one obtains a shadow. When no one obtains a shadow, there is no way to discuss crooked and straight; when no one obtains an echo, there is no way to discuss clear and turbid (the received text writes "clear-fistula," where the second character is an error for "turbid"). When there is no way to discuss crooked and straight, his achievement cannot be damaged; when there is no way to discuss clear and turbid, his name cannot be measured. What is meant by not seeing his form is not that one cannot see the form of his advancing, retreating and movements, but that the reasons for his advancing and retreating cannot be seen; what is meant by not hearing his voice is not that one cannot hear the voice of his commands, but that the reasons for his commands cannot be heard. To be unseen and unheard is called obscure and dim. One who can be obscure can be bright, one who can be dim can be manifest. To be able to be obscure and dim is called divine. What a ruler values is to dwell in obscurity and make his position bright, to stay in yin while facing yang, and to dislike others seeing his feelings while wishing to know others' hearts. Therefore a ruler holds thoughts without source and carries out affairs without beginning, seizing by not seeking and asking by not inquiring. When I seize by not seeking, I gain; when he brings out what he did not mean to bring out, he is depleted. When I ask by not inquiring, I am divine; when he answers what was not asked, his feelings are revealed. So I ask him all day and he does not know how to answer; I seize from him all day and he does not know how to bring it out. Thus I become clear, and he does not know what he has lost. So a minister dwells in yang and shows yin, and a ruler dwells in yin and shows yang. The way of yin honors form and reveals feeling; the way of yang has no beginning and values the divine.

民無所好，君無以權也；民無所惡，君無以畏也；無以權，無以畏，則君無以禁制也；無以禁制，則比肩齊勢，而無以為貴矣。故聖人之治國也，因天地之性情、孔竅之所利，以立尊卑之制，以等貴賤之差，設官府爵祿，利五味，盛五色，調五聲，以誘其耳目；自令清瘻昭然殊體，榮辱踔然相駁，以感動其心；務致民令有所好，有所好，然後可得而勸也，故設賞以勸之；有所好，必有所惡，有所惡，然後可得而畏也，故設罰以畏之；既有所勸，又有所畏，然後可得而制；制之者，制其所好，是以勸賞而不得多也；制其所惡，是以畏罰而不可過也；所好多，則作福；所惡多，則作威；作威則君亡權，天下相怨；作福則君亡德，天下相賊。故聖人之制民，使之有欲，不得過節；使之敦樸，不得無慾；無慾有欲，各得以足，而君道得矣。國之所以為國者，德也，君之所以為君者，威也，故德不可共，威不可分，德共則失恩，威分則失權，失權則君賤，失恩則民散，民散則國亂，君賤則臣叛。是故為人君者，固守其德，以附其民，固執其權，以正其臣。聲有順逆，必有清瘻，形有善惡，必有曲直，故聖人聞其聲，則別其清瘻，見其形，則異其曲直，於瘻之中，必知其清，於清之中，必知其瘻，於曲之中，必見其直，於直之中，必見其曲，於聲無小而不取，於形無小而不舉，不以著蔽微，不以眾揜寡，各應其事，以致其報，黑白分明，然後民知所去就，民知所去就，然後可以致治，是為象則。為人君者，居無為之位，行不言之教，寂而無聲，靜而無形，執一無端，為國源泉，因國以為身，因臣以為心，以臣言為聲，以臣事為形，有聲必有響，有形必有影，聲出於內，響報於外，形立於上，影應於下，響有清瘻，影有曲直，響所報，非一聲也，影所應，非一形也。

If the people have no likes, the ruler has no way to weigh them; if the people have no dislikes, the ruler has no way to make them fear. Without a way to weigh or to inspire fear, the ruler has no way to restrain; without a way to restrain, they stand shoulder to shoulder with equal power, and the ruler has no way to be honored. So when sages govern a state, they go by the nature and feelings of Heaven and Earth and what suits the orifices, to establish the system of high and low, and to grade the distinctions of noble and base. They set up offices, ranks and salaries, make the five flavors beneficial, make the five colors rich and fine, harmonize the five sounds, to draw on the ears and eyes; they make the clear and the turbid (the received text writes "clear-fistula," where the second character is an error for "turbid") plain, each forming a different body, and glory and disgrace openly contradict each other, to move the heart. They strive to give the people something to like; having something to like, they can then be encouraged, so rewards are set up to encourage; having likes surely means having dislikes, and having dislikes they can then be made to fear, so punishments are set up to inspire fear. Having something that encourages them and something that they fear, they can then be restrained. What is meant by restraining is restraining what they like, so rewards are used to encourage but cannot be too many; and restraining what they dislike, so punishments are used to inspire fear but cannot be excessive. If what is liked is too much, they will make blessings; if what is disliked is too much, they will make awe. If they make awe, the ruler loses power and the world resents one another; if they make blessings, the ruler loses virtue and the world harms one another. So when a sage restrains the people, he lets them have desires but not exceed the measure; he makes them sincere and plain but not without any desire. When non-desire and desire each get their fill, the way of the ruler is attained. What makes a state a state is virtue; what makes a ruler a ruler is awe. So virtue cannot be shared with others, and awe cannot be divided. If virtue is shared with others, kindness is lost; if awe is divided, power is lost. Losing power makes the ruler base; losing kindness makes the people scatter. When the people scatter the state is in disorder, when the ruler is base the ministers rebel. Therefore a ruler firmly holds his virtue to attach the people and firmly grasps his power to correct the ministers. Sounds have compliant and contrary, and there must be clear and turbid; forms have good and bad, and there must be crooked and straight. So the sage, hearing a sound, distinguishes clear and turbid, and seeing a form, distinguishes crooked and straight. Within the turbid he must know the clear, within the clear he must know the turbid, within the crooked he must see the straight, and within the straight he must see the crooked. Of sounds there are none so small as not to be taken, of forms none so small as not to be raised; he does not let the conspicuous cover the subtle, nor the many cover the few, each answers according to the matter and brings its response, black and white are distinct, and then the people know what to leave and what to approach. When the people know what to leave and what to approach, governance can be achieved; this is taking images as the rule. One who is a ruler dwells in the position of non-action, carries out teaching without words, is quiet and without sound, calm and without form, holds to the One without a beginning, and is the wellspring of the state. He takes the state as his body and the ministers as his heart, takes the ministers' words as sound and the ministers' deeds as form. Where there is sound there must be an echo, where there is form there must be a shadow. The sound comes from within and the echo answers outside; the form stands above and the shadow responds below. The echo has clear and turbid, the shadow has crooked and straight. What the echo answers is not one kind of sound; what the shadow responds to is not one kind of form.

故為君，虛心靜處，聰聽其響，明視其影，以行賞罰之象，其行賞罰也，響清則生清者榮，響瘻則生瘻者辱，影正則生正者進，影枉則生枉者絀，?名考質，以參其實，賞不空施，罰不虛出，是以群臣分職而治，各敬而事，爭進其功，顯廣其名，而人君得載其中，此自然致力之術也，聖人由之，故功出於臣，名歸於君也。

So one who is a ruler stays in emptiness and stillness, listens keenly to the echo and sees clearly the shadow, in order to carry out the images of reward and punishment. In carrying out rewards and punishments: if the echo is clear, let the clear be glorified; if the echo is turbid, let the turbid be disgraced; if the shadow is straight, let the straight be promoted; if the shadow is crooked, let the crooked be demoted. Follow the name to examine the substance (the received text has an illegible character above "name," which should be "follow"), in order to test the reality. Rewards are not given out of nothing, punishments are not issued emptily. So the ministers divide their duties and govern, each is respectful in his work, they compete to present achievements, and spread and promote their own names, while the ruler is carried within it all. This is the art of making effort come naturally. The sage proceeds by it, so merit comes from the ministers and the name goes to the ruler.

考績之法，考其所積也。天道積聚眾精以為光；聖人積聚眾善以為功；故日月之明，非一精之光也；聖人致太平，非一善之功也。明所從生，不可為源，善所從出，不可為端，量勢立權，因事制義。故聖人之為天下興利也，其猶春氣之生草也，各因其生小大，而量其多少；其為天下除害也，若川瀆之寫於海也，各順其勢傾側，而制於南北；故異孔而同歸，殊施而鈞德，其趣於興利除害，一也。是以興利之要，在於致之，不在於多少；除害之要，在於去之，不在於南北。考績絀陟，計事除廢，有益者謂之公，無益者謂之煩，?名責實，不得虛言，有功者賞，有罪者罰，功盛者賞顯，罪多者罰重，不能致功，雖有賢名，不予之賞，官職不廢，雖有愚名，不加之罰，賞罰用於實，不用於名，賢愚在於質，不在於文，故是非不能混，喜怒不能傾，奸軌不能弄，萬物各得其冥，則百官勸職，爭進其功。

The method of assessment of achievement is to assess what has been accumulated. The Way of Heaven gathers many essences to make light; the sage gathers many goods to make achievement. So the brightness of the sun and moon is not the light of one essence; the sage's attaining great peace is not the achievement of one good. From where brightness is born cannot be taken as a source; from where good comes cannot be taken as a beginning. Measure the situation, establish the scales, and set righteousness according to the matter. So when the sage creates benefit for the world, it is like spring qi producing grass, each according to the size of what is born, measuring its amount; when he removes harm for the world, it is like rivers draining into the sea, each tilting along the lay of the land and bounded by south and north. So the openings differ yet return to one place, and the bestowals differ yet the virtue is equal, all tending toward creating benefit and removing harm alike. Therefore the essential of creating benefit is delivering the benefit, not the amount; the essential of removing harm is getting rid of it, not the direction. In assessment, demotion and promotion, calculate accomplishments in order to remove useless tasks. What is beneficial is called public; what is not beneficial is called vexatious. Follow the name and demand the substance (the received text has an illegible character above "name," which should be "follow"), and do not let empty words pass. Reward those with merit and punish those with guilt. Where merit is great, reward is conspicuous; where guilt is many, punishment is heavy. If one cannot bring about achievement, even with a name for worth he is not rewarded; if an office is not neglected, even with a name for foolishness he is not punished. Reward and punishment are applied to the reality and not to the name; worth and foolishness lie in substance and not in appearance. So right and wrong cannot be confused, joy and anger cannot tilt the scale, the treacherous cannot play tricks, the ten thousand things each find their place, and the hundred officials strive in their duties and compete to present achievements.

考試之法：大者緩，小者急；貴者舒，而賤者促。諸侯月試其國，州伯時試其部，四試而一考，天子歲試天下，三試而一考，前後三考而絀陟，命之曰計。

The method of examination: the large are slow and the small are quick; the noble are relaxed and the lowly are hurried. The lords examine their states each month, the provincial chiefs examine their subordinates each season, and four examinations make one assessment. The Son of Heaven examines the world each year, and three examinations make one assessment. After three assessments in sequence, there is demotion or promotion, which is named "ji," the reckoning.

考試之法，合其爵祿，並其秩，積其日，陳其實，計功量罪，以多除少，以名定實，先內弟之，其先比二三分，以為上中下，以考進退，然後外集，通名曰進退，增減多少，有率為弟，九分三三列之，亦有上中下，以一為最，五為中，九為殿，有餘歸之於中，中而上者有得，中而下者有負，得少者，以一益之，至於四，負多者，以四減之，至於一，皆逆行，三四十二，而成於計，得滿計者絀陟之，次次每計，各逐其弟，以通來數，初次再計，次次四計，各不失故弟，而亦滿計絀陟之。

The method of examination: combine ranks and salaries, merge orders of seniority, accumulate days and months, set out the realities, calculate merits and weigh faults, use the greater to remove the lesser, and use names to fix the real. First arrange grades within (the received text's "di" is read as "di" of "grade," the same below); first compare and divide into two or three portions as upper, middle and lower, in order to examine advancing and retreating; then add up outside and call them in general advancing and retreating. Increase and decrease, more and less, have ratios as grades, divided into nine portions, arranged by threes, with upper, middle and lower in them too. Take one as the best, five as the middle, nine as the last. The surplus goes to the middle. Those above the middle have gains and those below the middle have deficits. Those with small gains are increased by one up to four; those with large deficits are reduced by four down to one, all running contrary to the grades. Three times four makes twelve, and it is completed in the "ji." Those whose numbers fill the "ji" are demoted or promoted. Each "ji" in turn follows its grades, in order to connect with the later numbers. The first second "ji" and the next four "ji" each do not lose the old grade, and they too are demoted or promoted when the "ji" is filled.

初次再計，謂上弟二也，次次四計，謂上弟三也，九年為一弟，二得九，幷去其六，為置三弟，六六得等，為置二，幷中者得三，盡去之，並三三計，得六，幷得一計，得六，此為四計也。絀者亦然。

The first second "ji" means the second of the upper grades; the next four "ji" means the third of the upper grades. Nine years make one grade. Two times gives nine, and removing six all together, one sets three grades. Six times six gives a grade, set as two. Combine the middle to give three, and remove it all. Combine the three-three "ji" to give six, combine the get-one "ji" to give six, and this is the four "ji." The demoted are likewise.

氣之清者為精，人之清者為賢，治身者以積精為寶，治國者以積賢為道。身以心為本，國以君為主；精積於其本，則血氣相承受；賢積於其主，則上下相制使；血氣相承受，則形體無所苦；上下相制使，則百官各得其所；形體無所苦，然後身可得而安也；百官各得其所，然後國可得而守也。夫欲致精者，必虛靜其形；欲致賢者，必卑謙其身，形靜志虛者，精氣之所趣也；謙尊自卑者，仁賢之所事也。故治身者，務執虛靜以致精；治國者，務盡卑謙以致賢；能致精，則合明而壽；能致賢，則德澤洽而國太平。

What is clear in qi is essence, and what is clear in people is the worthy. In governing the body, accumulating essence is the treasure; in governing a state, accumulating worthy men is the way. The body takes the heart as its root, and the state takes the ruler as its master. When essence accumulates at the root, blood and qi receive one another; when worthy men accumulate around the master, high and low restrain and employ one another. When blood and qi receive one another, the body has no pain; when high and low restrain and employ one another, the hundred officials each find their place. When the body has no pain, then the body can be at peace; when the hundred officials each find their place, then the state can be held. To draw in essence one must make the body empty and still; to draw in worthy men one must make oneself humble. When the body is still and the will is empty, it is where essence and qi gravitate; when the honored is humble and places himself low, it is whom the humane and worthy serve. So one who governs his body strives to hold emptiness and stillness to draw in essence; one who governs a state strives to exhaust humility to draw in worthy men. If he can draw in essence, he joins with brightness and lives long; if he can draw in worthy men, virtue and kindness are harmonious and the state is at great peace.

春秋曰：“王正月。”傳曰：“王者庸謂？謂文王也。曷為先言王而後言正月？王正月也。何以謂之王正月？曰：王者必受命而後王，王者必改正朔，易服色，制禮樂，一統於天下，所以明易姓非繼人，通以己受之於天也。王者受命而王，制此月以應變，故作科以奉天地，故謂之王正月也。王者改制作科奈何？曰：當十二色，歷各法而正色，逆數三而復，絀三之前，曰五帝，帝迭首一色，順數五而相復，禮樂各以其法象其宜，順數四而相復，鹹作國號，頡宮邑，易官名，制禮作樂。故湯受命而王，應天變夏，作殷號，時正白統，親夏、故虞，絀唐，謂之帝堯，以神農為赤帝，作宮邑於下洛之陽，名相官曰尹，作濩樂、制質禮以奉天。文王受命而王，應天變殷，作周號，時正赤統，親殷、故夏，絀虞，謂之帝舜，以軒轅為黃帝，推神農以為九皇，作宮邑於豐，名相官曰宰，作武樂、制文禮以奉天。武王受命，作宮邑於鄗，制爵五等，作象樂，繼文以奉天。周公輔成王受命，作宮邑於洛陽，成文武之制，作汋樂以奉天。殷湯之後稱邑，示天之變反命，故天子命無常，唯命是德慶。故春秋應天作新王之事，時正黑統，王魯，尚黑，絀夏、親周、故宋，樂宜親招武，故以虞錄親，樂制宜商，合伯子男為一等。然則其略說奈何？曰：三正以黑統初，正日月朔於營室，鬥建寅，天統氣始通化物，物見萌達，其色黑，故朝正服黑，首服藻黑，正路輿質黑，馬黑，大節綬幘尚黑，旗黑，大寶玉黑，郊牲黑，犧牲角卵，冠於阼，昏禮逆於庭，喪禮殯於東階之上，祭牲黑牡，薦尚肝，樂器黑質，法不刑有懷任新產，是月不殺，聽朔廢刑發德，具存二王之後也，親赤統，故日分平明，平明朝正。正白統奈何？

The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "The king's first month." The commentary says: "Who is meant by the king? King Wen. Why is 'king' said first and 'first month' after? Because it is the king's first month. Why is it called the king's first month? It says: a true king must first receive the mandate of Heaven and only then be king, and a true king must reform the calendar and the first day of the year, change the color of garments, and establish ritual and music, unifying the world, to show that changing the surname is not a continuation of the previous one but is received by himself from Heaven. A true king receives the mandate and becomes king, and establishes this month to answer the change, so he sets up regulations to serve Heaven and Earth, and this is why it is called the king's first month. What is it like for a true king to reform institutions and make regulations? It says: facing the twelve colors, each dynasty's calendar takes its model and determines its correct color, going against the count in cycles of three; those who were demoted from before the Three Dynasties are called the Five Emperors, the Five Emperors succeed one another, each with one color as the head, going with the count in cycles of five; ritual and music each use their own law to take images of what is fitting, going with the count in cycles of four; all must establish a national name, relocate the palace city (the received text writes "Jie palace city," where "Jie" should be "relocate"), change official titles, and establish ritual and music. So when Tang received the mandate and became king, he answered Heaven and changed Xia, made the state name Yin, at that time took the white lineage as correct, was close to Xia and took Yu as the old, demoted Tang and called him Emperor Yao, treated Shennong as the Red Emperor, built a palace city on the sunny side of Xialuo, called the office of chancellor "yin," made the music Huo and established plain ritual to serve Heaven. When King Wen received the mandate and became king, he answered Heaven and changed Yin, made the state name Zhou, at that time took the red lineage as correct, was close to Yin and took Xia as the old, demoted Yu and called him Emperor Shun, treated Xuanyuan as the Yellow Emperor, honored Shennong as one of the Nine Sovereigns, built a palace city at Feng, called the office of chancellor "zai," made the music Wu and established cultured ritual to serve Heaven. When King Wu received the mandate, he built a palace city at Hao, set ranks in five grades, made the music Xiang, and continued King Wen to serve Heaven. The Duke of Zhou, assisting King Cheng in receiving the mandate, built a palace city at Luoyang, completed the institutions of King Wen and King Wu, and made the music Zhuo to serve Heaven. That the descendants of Yin Tang were called by town shows the change of Heaven and the reversals of Heaven's mandate, so the Son of Heaven's mandate has no constant rule and is given only to the virtuous and the celebrated. So the Annals, answering Heaven, performs the affairs of a new king, at that time takes the black lineage as correct, takes Lu as king, honors black, demotes Xia, is close to Zhou and takes Song as the old; for music it is fitting to be close to the Shao and Wu, so Yu is recorded as the close kin; for the music system it is fitting to use the Shang tone, and combine earl, viscount and baron into one rank. Then what is its outline? It says: the Three Correct Times begin with the black lineage, fix the conjunction of sun and moon at the Yingshi constellation, the handle of the Dipper points to Yin, the qi of the Heaven lineage begins to flow and give birth to the ten thousand things, things show sprouting and growth, and its color is black, so at the court of the first day the robes are black, the cap ornaments on the head are black, the main carriage is black in quality, the horses are black, the ribbons and head cloths of the great festival honor black, the banners are black, the great jade is black, the victims at the suburban sacrifice are black, the horns of the victims are small like an egg, the capping ceremony is held at the eastern steps, the wedding welcome is in the courtyard, the funeral coffin rests above the eastern steps, the sacrificial victim is a black bull, the offering favors the liver, and the instruments are black in quality; the law does not apply punishment to those pregnant or newly delivered, no killing in this month, when listening to the new moon punishments cease and virtue is promoted, and the descendants of the two former kings are fully preserved. Because it is close to the red lineage, the boundary of the day is at dawn, and the court of the first day is held at dawn. What is the correct white lineage like?"

曰：正白統者，歷正日月朔於虛，鬥建醜，天統氣始蛻化物，物初芽，其色白，故朝正服白，首服藻白，正路輿質白，馬白，大節綬幘尚白，旗白，大寶玉白，郊牲白，犧牲角繭，冠於堂，昏禮逆於堂，喪事殯於楹柱之間，祭牲白牡，薦尚肺，樂器白質，法不刑有身懷任，是月不殺，聽朔廢刑發德，具存二王之後也，親黑統，故日分鳴晨，鳴晨朝正。正赤統奈何？曰：正赤統者，歷正日月朔於牽牛，鬥建子，天統氣始施化物，物始動，其色赤，故朝正服赤，首服藻赤，正路輿質赤，馬赤，大節綬幘尚赤，旗赤，大寶玉赤，郊牲騂，犧牲角栗，冠於房，昏禮逆於戶，喪禮殯於西階之上，祭牲騂牡，薦尚心，樂器赤質，法不刑有身，重懷藏以養微，是月不殺，聽朔廢刑發德，具存二王之後也，親白統，故日分夜半，夜半朝正。改正之義，奉元而起，古之王者受命而王，改制稱號正月，服色定，然後郊告天地及群神，遠追祖禰，然後布天下，諸侯廟受，以告社稷宗廟山川，然後感應一其司，三統之變，近夷遐方無有生煞者，獨中國，然而三代改正，必以三統天下，曰：三統五端，化四方之本也，天始廢始施，地必待中，是故三代必居中國，法天奉本，執端要以統天下，朝諸侯也。是以朝正之義，天子純統色衣，諸侯統衣纏緣紐，大夫士以冠參，近夷以綏，遐方各衣其服而朝，所以明乎天統之義也。其謂統三正者，曰：正者、正也，統致其氣，萬物皆應而正，統正，其餘皆正，凡歲之要，在正月也，法正之道，正本而末應，正內而外應，動作舉錯，靡不變化隨從，可謂法正也，故君子曰：“武王其似正月矣。”春秋曰：“杞伯來朝。”王者之後稱公，杞何以稱伯？春秋上絀夏，下存周，以春秋當新王。春秋當新王者奈何？曰：王者之法必正號，絀王謂之帝，封其後以小國，使奉祀之；

(He continued:) "It says: the correct white lineage fixes the conjunction of sun and moon at the Xu constellation, the Dipper handle points to Chou, the qi of the Heaven lineage begins to shed and give birth to the ten thousand things, things just sprouting, and its color is white, so at the court of the first day the robes are white, the cap ornaments on the head are white, the main carriage is white in quality, the horses are white, the ribbons and head cloths of the great festival honor white, the banners are white, the great jade is white, the victims at the suburban sacrifice are white, the horns of the victims are like a cocoon, the capping ceremony is held in the hall, the wedding welcome is in the hall, the funeral coffin rests between the pillars, the sacrificial victim is a white bull, the offering favors the lungs, and the instruments are white in quality; the law does not apply punishment to those pregnant, no killing in this month, when listening to the new moon punishments cease and virtue is promoted, and the descendants of the two former kings are fully preserved. Because it is close to the black lineage, the boundary of the day is at cockcrow, and the court of the first day is held at cockcrow. What is the correct red lineage like? It says: the correct red lineage fixes the conjunction of sun and moon at the Qianniu constellation, the Dipper handle points to Zi, the qi of the Heaven lineage begins to spread and give birth to the ten thousand things, things begin to move, and its color is red, so at the court of the first day the robes are red, the cap ornaments on the head are red, the main carriage is red in quality, the horses are red, the ribbons and head cloths of the great festival honor red, the banners are red, the great jade is red, the victims at the suburban sacrifice are reddish-brown, the horns of the victims are like chestnuts, the capping ceremony is held in the side room, the wedding welcome is at the door, the funeral coffin rests above the western steps, the sacrificial victim is a reddish-brown bull, the offering favors the heart, and the instruments are red in quality; the law does not apply punishment to the pregnant, valuing carrying within in order to nurture a minute life, no killing in this month, when listening to the new moon punishments cease and virtue is promoted, and the descendants of the two former kings are fully preserved. Because it is close to the white lineage, the boundary of the day is at midnight, and the court of the first day is held at midnight. The meaning of reforming the correct time is to arise carrying the origin. In antiquity, when a true king received the mandate and became king, he reformed institutions, titles and the first month, and once the color of garments was fixed, he made suburban sacrifices to announce to Heaven, Earth and the many spirits, remembered his ancestors and fathers from afar, and then promulgated it to the world, and the lords received it in their temples, in order to announce it to the altars of the soil and grain, the ancestral temples, mountains and rivers, and then to resonate with and unify their duties. In the change of the Three Lineages, the nearby Yi and the far regions are not governed by life and death; only the central states are so; yet in the reforms of the Three Dynasties, one must use the Three Lineages to unify the world. It says: the Three Lineages and Five Beginnings are the root of transforming the four quarters. Heaven begins to discard and begins to bestow, and Earth must wait until it is centered, so the Three Dynasties always dwelled in the central states, modeled themselves on Heaven, upheld the root, and held to the essentials to unify the world and receive the lords. So the meaning of the court of the first day is: the Son of Heaven wears robes wholly in the lineage color, the lords wear robes of the lineage color with wrapped trim and cords, grandees and scholars match it with caps, the nearby Yi use ribbons, and the far peoples come to court each in their own garments, in order to make clear the meaning of the Heaven lineage. What is meant by unifying the three correct times? It says: "zheng" is rectifying; the lineage carries its qi to them and all things respond and are rectified. When the lineage is rectified, all the rest is rectified. The essential of the year lies in the first month. Taking the Way of rectification as a model, when the root is rectified the branch responds, when the inner is rectified the outer responds, and no movement or act fails to change with it; this may be called the rectified law. So the gentleman says: "King Wu is like the first month." The Annals says: "The Earl of Qi came to court." The descendants of a true king are called Duke; why is Qi called Earl? The Annals demotes Xia above and preserves Zhou below, treating the Annals as a new king. What is it like to treat the Annals as a new king? It says: the law of a true king must rectify names, demote the king of the former dynasty and call him emperor, enfeoff his descendants with a small state and have him perform the sacrifices;

下存二王之後以大國，使服其服，行其禮樂，稱客而朝；故同時稱帝者五，稱王者三，所以昭五端，通三統也。是故周人之王，尚推神農為九皇，而改號軒轅，謂之黃帝，因存帝顓頊、帝嚳、帝堯之帝號，絀虞，而號舜曰帝舜，錄五帝以小國；下存禹之後於杞，存湯之後於宋，以方百里，爵號公，皆使服其服，行其禮樂，稱先王客而朝。春秋作新王之事，變周之制，當正黑統，而殷周為王者之後，絀夏，改號禹謂之帝，錄其後以小國，故曰：絀夏、存周，以春秋當新王。不以杞侯，弗同王者之後也；稱子又稱伯何？見殊之小國也。黃帝之先諡，四帝之後諡何也？曰：帝號必存五，帝代首天之色，號至五而反，周人之王，軒轅直首天黃號，故曰黃帝雲；帝號尊而諡卑，故四帝后諡也。帝，尊號也，錄以小何？曰：遠者號尊而地小，近者號卑而地大，親疏之義也。故王者有不易者、有再而復者、有三而復者、有四而復者、有五而復者、有九而復者，明此通天地、陰陽、四時、日月、星辰、山川、人倫，德侔天地者，稱皇帝，天佑而子之，號稱天子。故聖王生則稱天子，崩頡則存為三王，絀滅則為五帝，下至附庸，絀為九皇，下極其為民，有一謂之三代，故雖絕地，廟位祝牲，猶列於郊號，宗於代宗，故曰：聲名魂魄施於虛，極壽無疆。何謂再而復，四而復？春秋鄭忽何以名？春秋曰：“伯子男一也，辭無所貶。”何以為一？曰：周爵五等，春秋三等。春秋何三等？曰：王者以制，一商一夏，一質一文，商質者主天，夏文者主地，春秋者主人，故三等也。主天法商而王，其道佚陽，親親而多仁樸；故立嗣予子，篤母弟，妾以子貴；昏冠之禮，字子以父，別眇夫婦，對坐而食；喪禮別葬；祭禮先臊，夫妻昭穆別位；制爵三等，祿士二品；制郊宮，明堂員，其屋高嚴侈員；

(Continuing:) Below, a great state is used to preserve the descendants of the two earlier kings, letting them wear their own dress and practice their own rites and music, and they come to court as guests. Thus at one time there were five who held the title of emperor and three who held the title of king, in order to make the five origins clear and connect the three lines of rule. So the people of Zhou, becoming kings, pushed Shennong upward as one of the nine sovereigns, changed Xuanyuan's title to Yellow Emperor, preserved the imperial titles of Emperors Zhuanxu, Ku and Yao, demoted Yu and called Shun Emperor Shun, and recorded the five emperors in small states; below, they preserved the descendants of Yu in Qi and those of Tang in Song, with a hundred li of land and the title of duke, all letting them wear their own dress and practice their own rites and music, and they came to court as guests of the former kings. The Spring and Autumn Annals does the work of a new king, changing Zhou's institutions, and should take the black line as its correct beginning, with Yin and Zhou as descendants of kings, demoting Xia and changing Yu's title to emperor, recording his descendants in a small state; so it is said: demote Xia, preserve Zhou, and take the Spring and Autumn Annals as the new king. Qi is not treated as a marquisate, which is not equating it with the descendants of a king; it is called both viscount and earl, why? To show that it is a small state treated separately. The Yellow Emperor's posthumous title comes before his name, while the four emperors' titles come after, why? It is said: the imperial title must preserve five, and emperors succeed one another with Heaven's color first, and when the title reaches five it returns. When the Zhou people became kings, Xuanyuan stood at the title of Heaven's yellow color first, so he is called Yellow Emperor. The imperial title is honored while the posthumous title is lowly, so the four emperors place the posthumous title behind. The emperor is an honored title, yet is recorded in a small state, why? It is said: the distant title is honored and the land small, the near title is lowly and the land large, which is the principle of near and far. So for kings there are things that cannot be changed, things that cycle every two, every three, every four, every five, and every nine. To understand these is to penetrate heaven and earth, yin and yang, the four seasons, sun and moon, stars, mountains and rivers, and human relations. One whose virtue matches heaven and earth is called sovereign emperor, Heaven protects him and takes him as a son, and he is titled Son of Heaven. So a sage king when alive is called Son of Heaven, after his death is preserved as one of the three kings, when demoted again he becomes one of the five emperors, when lowered again to a dependent vassal he is demoted as one of the nine sovereigns, and when pushed down to the extreme he is a commoner. There is a line of one generation called the Three Dynasties; so even if the land is cut off, the temple positions, invocations and sacrificial victims are still listed under the name of the suburban sacrifice, with the great peak as ancestor; so it is said: the name, spirit and soul extend into emptiness, and the span of life has no end. What are the cycles of two and of four? In the Spring and Autumn Annals, why is Hu of Zheng called by name? The Annals say: "Earl, Viscount and Baron are one rank, and there is no demotion in the wording." Why are they one rank? It is said: the Zhou rank has five grades, while the Spring and Autumn Annals has three. Why does the Spring and Autumn Annals have three? It is said: what a king uses to set institutions is one of Shang or one of Xia, one of plainness or one of refinement. Shang's plainness is mastered by Heaven, Xia's refinement is mastered by Earth, and the Spring and Autumn Annals is mastered by Man, so there are three grades. Mastering Heaven and taking Shang as the model for kingship, his Way leans toward yang, he is close to kin and rich in benevolence and simplicity; so he establishes heirs among sons, treats full brothers generously, and concubines become honored through their sons; in marriage and capping rites, naming the son is according to the father, husband and wife are distinguished and eat facing each other; in funerals they are buried separately; in sacrifice the raw-smelling offerings come first, and husband and wife are distinguished in the arrangement of seats; ranks are set at three grades and salaried scholars at two; the suburban altar and palace are made, the Hall of Light is round, and houses are lofty, grand and round;

惟祭器員，玉厚九分，白藻五絲，衣制大上，首服嚴員；鸞輿尊，蓋法天列象，垂四鸞，樂載鼓，用錫舞，舞溢員；先毛血而後用聲；正刑多隱，親戚多諱；封禪於尚位。主地法夏而王，其道進陰，尊尊而多義節，故立嗣與孫，篤世子，妾不以子稱貴號；昏冠之禮，字子以母，別眇夫婦，同坐而食；喪禮合葬；祭禮先亨，婦從夫為昭穆；制爵五等，祿士三品；制郊宮，明堂方，其屋卑汙方，祭器方，玉厚八分，白藻四絲，衣制大下，首服卑退；鸞輿卑，法地周象載，垂二鸞，樂設鼓，用纖施舞，舞溢方；先亨而後用聲；正刑天法；封壇於下位。主天法質而王，其道佚陽，親親而多質愛，故立嗣予子，篤母弟，妾以子貴；昏冠之禮，字子以父，別眇夫婦，對坐而食；喪禮別葬，祭禮先嘉疏，夫婦昭穆別位；制爵三等，祿士二品；制郊宮，明堂內員外橢，其屋如倚靡員橢，祭器橢，玉厚七分，白藻三絲；衣長前衽，首服員轉；鸞輿尊，蓋備天列象，垂四鸞，樂桯鼓，用羽鑰舞，舞溢橢，先用玉聲而後烹；正刑多隱，親戚多赦；封壇於左位。主地法文而王，其道進陰，尊尊而多禮文，故立嗣予孫，篤世子，妾不以子稱貴號；昏冠之禮，字子以母，別眇夫妻，同坐而食；喪禮合葬，祭禮先秬鬯，婦從夫為昭穆；制爵五等，祿士三品；制郊宮，明堂內方外衡，其屋習而衡，祭器衡同，作秩機，玉厚六分，白藻三絲；衣長後衽，首服習而垂流，鸞輿卑，備地周象載，垂二鸞，樂縣鼓，用萬舞，舞溢衡；先烹而後用樂，正刑天法，封壇於左位。

(Continuing:) Only the sacrificial vessels are round, the jade is nine fen thick, the white pendant uses five threads, the clothing is wide above, and the headgear is severe and round; the luan carriage is lofty, its canopy modeled on Heaven with the stars arrayed, with four luan bells hanging down, the music uses the carried drum, tin dances are used, and the dance rows are round; first the hair and blood are offered and then the music sounds; punishments are mostly hidden and not shown, and for relatives there is much avoidance; the feng and shan sacrifices are in the upper position. Mastering Earth and taking Xia as the model for kingship, his Way advances toward yin, he honors the honored and is rich in righteous restraint; so he establishes heirs among grandsons, treats the crown prince generously, and concubines do not take honored titles through their sons; in marriage and capping rites, naming the son is according to the mother, husband and wife are distinguished and eat seated together; funerals are joint burials; in sacrifice the cooked food comes first, and wives follow husbands in determining the zhaomu order; ranks are set at five grades and salaried scholars at three; the suburban altar and palace are made, the Hall of Light is square, and houses are low, damp and square; vessels are square, the jade is eight fen thick, the white pendant uses four threads, the clothing is wide below, and the headgear is withdrawn; the luan carriage is low, taking Earth as the model and the surroundings imitating the load, with two luan bells hanging down, the music arranges drums, xian shi dances are used, and the dance rows are square; first it is cooked and then the music sounds; punishments take Heaven as their model; the altar for feng is in the lower position. Mastering Heaven and taking plainness as the model for kingship, his Way leans toward yang, he is close to kin and rich in plain affection; so he establishes heirs among sons, treats full brothers generously, and concubines become honored through their sons; in marriage and capping rites, naming the son is according to the father, husband and wife are distinguished and eat facing each other; in funerals they are buried separately, in sacrifice fine vegetables come first, and husband and wife are distinguished in the zhaomu seats; ranks are set at three grades and salaried scholars at two; the suburban altar and palace are made, the Hall of Light is round inside and oval outside, houses are round and oval like leaning forms, vessels are oval, the jade is seven fen thick, the white pendant uses three threads; the clothing's front lapel is long, and the headgear is rounded; the luan carriage is lofty, its canopy complete and modeled on Heaven with stars arrayed, four luan bells hanging down, the music uses the cheng drum, feather-and-flute dances are used, and the dance rows are oval; first the sound of jade and then cooked food; punishments are mostly hidden and not shown, and relatives are mostly pardoned; the altar for feng is in the left position. Mastering Earth and taking refinement as the model for kingship, his Way advances toward yin, he honors the honored and is rich in ritual refinement; so he establishes heirs among grandsons, treats the crown prince generously, and concubines do not take honored titles through their sons; in marriage and capping rites, naming the son is according to the mother, husband and wife are distinguished and sit together to eat; funerals are joint burials, in sacrifice black millet wine comes first, and wives follow husbands in determining the zhaomu order; ranks are set at five grades and salaried scholars at three; the suburban altar and palace are made, the Hall of Light is square inside and horizontal outside, houses are layered and horizontal, vessels are also horizontal, and zhiji implements are made; the jade is six fen thick, the white pendant uses three threads; the clothing's rear lapel is long, the headgear is layered with hanging tassels, the luan carriage is low, complete and modeled on Earth with the surroundings imitating the load, two luan bells hanging down, the music uses hung drums, wan dances are used, and the dance rows are horizontal; first it is cooked and then music is used, punishments are modeled on Heaven, and the altar for feng is in the left position.

四法修於所故，祖於先帝，故四法如四時然，終而復始，窮則反本，四法之天，施符授聖人王法，則性命形乎先祖，大昭乎王君。故天將授舜，主天法商而王，祖錫姓為姚氏，至舜形體，大上而員首，而明有二童子，性長於天文，純乎孝慈。天將授禹，主地法夏而王，祖錫姓為姒氏，至禹生髮於背，形體長，長足肵，疾行先左，隨以右，勞左佚右也，性長於行，習地明水。天將授湯，主天法質而王，祖錫姓為子氏，謂契母吞玄鳥卵生契，契先發於，性長於人倫，至湯體長專小，足左扁而右便，勞右佚左也，性長於天光，質易純仁。天將授文王，主地法文而王，祖錫姓姬氏，謂后稷母姜原，履天之跡，而生后稷，后稷長於邰土，播田五穀，至文王形體博長，有四乳而大足，性長於地文勢。故帝使禹皋論姓，知殷之德，陽德也，故以子為姓；知周之德，陰德也，故以姬為姓；故殷王改文，以男書子，周王以女書姬。故天道各以其類動，非聖人庸能明之！

Why are the four methods cultivated in the places they came from? They trace back to the former emperors, so the four methods are like the four seasons, ending and beginning again, and when exhausted they return to the root. The four methods come from Heaven, and Heaven gives a tally to the sage to serve as the king's law, and so nature and destiny take form in the earlier ancestors and shine greatly in the king. So when Heaven was about to give the mandate to Shun, making him master Heaven and take Shang as his model for kingship, his ancestors gave the surname Yao; Shun's body was wide above, his head round, and there were two pupils in his eyes, his nature excelled in the patterns of Heaven, and he was purely filial and kind. When Heaven was about to give the mandate to Yu, making him master Earth and take Xia as his model for kingship, his ancestors gave the surname Si; Yu was born from the back, his body long and his shins long, and when walking fast he stepped first with the left foot and the right followed, toiling on the left and easy on the right, his nature excelled at walking, he was familiar with the earth and clear on waters. When Heaven was about to give the mandate to Tang, making him master Heaven and take plainness as his model for kingship, his ancestors gave the surname Zi, saying that Xie's mother swallowed the egg of the dark bird and bore Xie, and Xie first appeared from [character lost in transcription], his nature excelled in human relations; Tang's body was long and specially small, his left foot flat and right foot nimble, toiling on the right and easy on the left, his nature excelled in the light of Heaven, his substance was plain and easy, and he was purely benevolent. When Heaven was about to give the mandate to King Wen, making him master Earth and take refinement as his model for kingship, his ancestors gave the surname Ji, saying that Houji's mother Jiang Yuan stepped in the footprint of Heaven and bore Houji, and Houji grew up in the land of Tai and sowed the five grains in the fields; King Wen's body was broad and long, he had four breasts and large feet, his nature excelled in the refined momentum of Earth. So the Emperor had Yu and Gao Yao discuss and settle surnames, knowing that Yin's virtue was the virtue of yang, so "Zi" was taken as the surname; knowing that Zhou's virtue was the virtue of yin, so "Ji" was taken as the surname. So the kings of Yin altered the script and wrote "zi" with the male radical, while the kings of Zhou wrote "ji" with the female radical. So the Way of Heaven moves each according to its kind; if not a sage, who could understand this!

王者制官：三公、九卿、二十七大夫、八十一元士，凡百二十人，而列臣備矣。吾聞聖王所取，儀金天之大經，三起而成，四轉而終，官制亦然者，此其儀與！三人而為一選，儀於三月而為一時也；四選而止，儀於四時而終也。三公者、王之所以自持也，天以三成之，王以三自持，立成數以為植，而四重之，其可以無失矣，備天數以參事，治謹於道之意也，此百二十臣者，皆先王之所與直道而行也。是故天子自參以三公，三公自參以九卿，九卿自參以三大夫，三大夫自參以三士，三人為選者四重，自三之道以治天下，若天之四重，自三之時以終始歲也，一陽而三春，非自三之時與！而天四重之，其數同矣。天有四時，時三月；王有四選，選三臣；是故有孟、有仲、有季，一時之情也；有上、有下、有中，一選之情也；三臣而為一選，四選而止，人情盡矣。人之材固有四選，如天之時固有四變也；聖人為一選，君子為一選，善人為一選，正人為一選，由此而下者，不足選也；四選之中，各有節也；是故天選四堤，十二而人變盡矣；盡人之變，合之天，唯聖人者能之，所以立王事也。何謂天之大經？三起而成日，三日而成規，三旬而成月，三月而成時，三時而成功；寒暑與和，三而成物；日月與星，三而成光；天地與人，三而成德；由此觀之，三而一成，天之大經也。以此為天制，是故禮三讓而成一節，官三人而成一選，三公為一選，三卿為一選，三大夫為一選，三士為一選，凡四選三臣，應天之制，凡四時之三月也。是故其以三為選。取諸天之經；其以四為制，取諸天之時；其以十二臣為一條，取諸歲之度；其至十條而止，取之天端。何謂天之端？

A king sets up offices: three dukes, nine ministers, twenty-seven grandees and eighty-one senior knights, one hundred and twenty in all, and the rank of ministers is complete. I have heard that what the sage kings took as their model was the great constant of Heaven's pattern: three risings make a completion, and four turnings make an end; the system of offices is also so, and this is its model! Three persons make one selection, modeled on three months making one season; stopping at four selections is modeled on the four seasons ending. The three dukes are what the king uses to keep himself steady. Heaven accomplishes through three, the king keeps himself steady through three, setting the completed number as the stem and stacking it again four layers, and then there can be no fault. Completing Heaven's number to test affairs means being careful of the Way in governing. These one hundred and twenty ministers are all people with whom the former kings walked the straight way. So the Son of Heaven uses the three dukes to assist himself, the three dukes use nine ministers to assist themselves, the nine ministers use three grandees to assist themselves, and the three grandees use three knights to assist themselves. Layering four times the selection of three persons, governing the world by the Way of "three" is like Heaven layering four times, and ending and beginning a year by the season of "three." With one yang there are three spring months; is it not the season of "three"! And Heaven layers four times, the numbers the same. Heaven has four seasons, each of three months; the king has four selections, each of three ministers. Hence there are first, middle and last months, which is the reality of one season; there are upper, lower and middle, which is the reality of one selection. Three ministers form one selection, and stopping at four selections exhausts human feeling. People's talents originally have four selections, just as the seasons of Heaven originally have four changes; sages form one selection, gentlemen one selection, good men one selection, upright men one selection, and those below are not enough to be selected; within the four selections each has its measure. Therefore Heaven selects four embankments, and at twelve the changes of humans are exhausted. To exhaust human changes and match them with Heaven, only a sage can do it, so it is used to establish royal affairs. What is the great constant of Heaven? Three risings make a day, three days make a regulation, three decades make a month, three months make a season, three seasons complete the work. Cold, heat and mildness: with the three, things are completed; sun, moon and stars: with the three, light is completed; Heaven, Earth and Man: with the three, virtue is completed. From this we see that three completing one is the great constant of Heaven. This is taken as Heaven's institution, so a rite makes one measure from three yieldings, and an office makes one selection from three persons: three dukes one selection, three ministers one selection, three grandees one selection, three knights one selection, in all four selections of three ministers each, answering Heaven's institution, exactly the three months of the four seasons. So taking three as a selection draws on Heaven's constant; taking four as the institution draws on Heaven's seasons; taking twelve ministers as one column draws on the year's measure; stopping at ten columns draws on Heaven's origins. What are the origins of Heaven?

曰：天有十端，十端而止已，天為一端，地為一端，陰為一端，陽為一端，火為一端，金為一端，木為一端，水為一端，土為一端，人為一端，凡十端而畢，天之數也。天數畢於十，王者受十端於天，而一條之率，每條一端以十二時，如天之每終一歲以十二月也，十者，天之數也，十二者，歲之度也，用歲之度，條天之數，十二而天數畢，是故終十歲而用百二十月，條十端亦用百二十臣，以率被之，皆合於天，其率三臣而成一慎，故八十一元士為二十七慎，以持二十七大夫，二十七大夫為九慎，以持九卿，九卿為三慎，以持三公，三公為一慎，以持天子，天子積四十慎，以為四選，選一慎三臣，皆天數也。是故以四選率之，則選三十人，三四十二，百二十人，亦天數也；以十端四選，十端積四十慎，慎三臣，三四十二，百二十人，亦天數也；以三公之勞率之，則公四十人，三四十二，百二十人，亦天數也。故散而名之，為百二十臣，選而賓之，為十二長，所以名之雖多，莫若謂之四選十二長，然而分別率之，皆有所合，無不中天數者也。求天數之微，莫若於人，人之身有四肢，每肢有三節，三四十二，十二節相持，而形體立矣；天有四時，每一時有三月，三四十二，十二月相受，而歲數終矣；官有四選，每一選有三人，三四十二，十二臣相參，而事治行矣；以此見天之數，人之形，官之制，相參相得也，人之與天多此類者，而皆微忽，不可不察也。天地之理，分一歲之變，以為四時，四時亦天之四選已，是故春者，少陽之選也，夏者，太陽之選也，秋者，少陰之選也，冬者，太陰之選也，四選之中，各有孟仲季，是選之中有選，故一歲之中有四時，一時之中有三長，天之節也。

(Continuing:) It is said: Heaven has ten origins, and stops at ten. Heaven is one origin, Earth one, yin one, yang one, fire one, metal one, wood one, water one, earth one, and man one, ten origins in all and complete, which is Heaven's number. Heaven's number is completed at ten. A king receives ten origins from Heaven and follows the ratio of one column: each column of one origin matches twelve seasons, just as Heaven uses twelve months to finish each year. Ten is Heaven's number and twelve is the year's measure. Using the year's measure to order Heaven's number, at twelve Heaven's number is complete. So ten years use one hundred and twenty months, and to order the ten origins also one hundred and twenty ministers are used; overlaying this ratio, all agree with Heaven. Its ratio is three ministers forming one unit (a group of three persons), so eighty-one senior knights make twenty-seven units, used to keep twenty-seven grandees steady; twenty-seven grandees make nine units, used to keep nine ministers steady; nine ministers make three units, used to keep three dukes steady; three dukes make one unit, used to keep the Son of Heaven steady. The Son of Heaven accumulates forty units as four selections, each selection one unit of three ministers, all Heaven's number. So computed by four selections, each selection has thirty persons, three times four is twelve, one hundred and twenty persons, also Heaven's number; by the ten origins and four selections, the ten origins accumulate forty units, each unit three ministers, three times four is twelve, one hundred and twenty persons, also Heaven's number; computed by the three dukes' labors, the rank of duke has forty persons, three times four is twelve, one hundred and twenty persons, also Heaven's number. So named separately they are one hundred and twenty ministers; selected and received as guests they are twelve chiefs. Though those used for naming are many, it is better to call them four selections and twelve chiefs; yet counted separately, all have agreement, and none fails to hit Heaven's number. To seek the fine points of Heaven's number, nothing is better than seeking it in the human body. A person's body has four limbs, each limb with three joints, three times four is twelve, and the twelve joints keep one another steady, and the body stands; Heaven has four seasons, each season three months, three times four is twelve, and the twelve months pass on to one another, and the year's number ends; offices have four selections, each selection three persons, three times four is twelve, and the twelve ministers assist one another, and the governing of affairs is carried out. From this we see Heaven's number, the human form and the system of offices testing and suiting one another. People and Heaven correspond in many such kinds, but all are subtle and elusive, and one must not fail to examine them. The principle of Heaven and Earth divides the changes of one year into four seasons, and the four seasons are Heaven's four selections. So spring is the selection of lesser yang, summer the selection of greater yang, autumn the selection of lesser yin, and winter the selection of greater yin. Within the four selections each has first, middle and last, which is selection within selection, so within a year there are four seasons, and within a season three chiefs, which is Heaven's joint.

人生於天，而體天之節，故亦有大小厚薄之變，人之氣也，先王因人之氣，而分其變，以為四選，是故三公之位，聖人之選也，三卿之位，君子之選也，三大夫之位，善人之選也，三士之位，正直之選也，分人之變，以為四選，選立三臣，如天之分歲之變，以為四時，時有三節也；天以四時之選，與十二節相和而成歲，王以四位之選，與十二臣相砥礪而致極，道必極於其所至，然後能得天地之美也。

People are born of Heaven and take Heaven's joints as their model, so they also have changes of large and small, thick and thin, which are people's qi. The former kings, following people's qi, divided its changes into four selections. So the position of the three dukes is the selection of sages; the position of the three ministers is the selection of gentlemen; the position of the three grandees is the selection of good men; the position of the three knights is the selection of the upright. Dividing human changes into four selections and establishing three ministers in each is like Heaven dividing the changes of a year into four seasons, each with three joints. Heaven uses the selection of the four seasons together with twelve joints to complete a year; the king uses the selection of the four ranks and twelve ministers to hone one another and reach the utmost. The Way must be exhausted to the place it should reach, and only then can one obtain the beauty of Heaven and Earth.

堯舜何緣而得擅移天下哉？孝經之語曰：“事父孝，故事天明。”事天與父同禮也。今父有以重予子，子不敢擅予他人，人心皆然；則王者亦天之子也，天以天下予堯舜，堯舜受命於天而王天下，猶子安敢擅以所重受於天者予他人也，天有不予堯舜漸奪之故，明為子道，則堯舜之不私傳天下而擅移位也，無所疑也。儒者以湯武為至聖大賢也，以為全道究義盡美者，故列之堯舜，謂之聖王，如法則之；今足下以湯武為不義，然則足下之所謂義者，何世之王也？曰：弗知。弗知者，以天下王為無義者耶？其有義者而足下不知耶？則答之以神農。應之曰：神農之為天子，與天地俱起乎？將有所伐乎？神農有所伐，可，湯武有所伐，獨不可，何也？且天之生民，非為王也；而天立王，以為民也。故其德足以安樂民者，天予之，其惡足以賊害民者，天奪之。詩云：“殷士膚敏，祼將於京，侯服於周，天命靡常。”言天之無常予，無常奪也。故封泰山之上，禪梁父之下，易姓而王，德如堯舜者，七十二人，王者，天之所予也，其所伐，皆天之所奪也，今唯以湯武之伐桀紂為不義，則七十二王亦有伐也，推足下之說，將以七十二王為皆不義也。故夏無道而殷伐之，殷無道而周伐之，周無道而秦伐之，秦無道而漢伐之，有道伐無道，此天理也，所從來久矣，寧能至湯武而然耶！夫非湯武之伐桀紂者，亦將非秦之伐周，漢之伐秦，非徒不知天理，又不明人禮，禮，子為父隱惡，今使伐人者，而信不義，當為國諱之，豈宜如誹謗者，此所謂一言而再過者也。君也者，掌令者也，令行而禁止也，今桀紂令天下而不行，禁天下而不止，安在其能臣天下也！果不能臣天下，何謂湯武弒？

By what right could Yao and Shun hand the world to others on their own authority? The Classic of Filial Piety says: "Serve your father with filial piety, and your service to Heaven is clear." Serving Heaven and serving a father are the same rite. Now when a father gives what he values to his son, the son does not dare to give it to others on his own authority, and everyone's heart is the same; then the king is also the son of Heaven, and Heaven gave the world to Yao and Shun, and Yao and Shun received the mandate from Heaven and ruled the world, just as a son, how could he dare to give to others, on his own authority, what he valued and received from Heaven? There was a reason Heaven did not give to Yao and Shun but gradually took away; once the way of being a son is understood, there is nothing doubtful about Yao and Shun not privately handing down the world and moving the throne on their own authority. Confucians take Tang and Wu as the supremely sage and greatly worthy, regarding them as complete in righteousness and utmost in beauty, and so they rank them with Yao and Shun, call them sage kings, and take them as models. Now if you regard Tang and Wu as unrighteous, then what you call righteousness is which generation's king? It is said: I do not know. Does not knowing mean that you think none of the kings of the world had righteousness? Or that some had righteousness and you do not know? Then he answers with Shennong. Reply to him: when Shennong was Son of Heaven, did he rise together with Heaven and Earth, or did he conduct campaigns? If Shennong's campaigns were acceptable, why are Tang's and Wu's campaigns alone not acceptable? Moreover Heaven gave birth to the people, not for the sake of a king; and Heaven established the king for the sake of the people. So one whose virtue is enough to make the people secure and happy, Heaven gives to him; one whose evil is enough to harm the people, Heaven takes from him. The Book of Songs, Greater Odes, King Wen, says: "The scholars of Yin were fine and quick, performed the libation and assisted at the Zhou capital; being lords of Zhou they served; the mandate of Heaven is not constant." This says that Heaven does not constantly give to anyone or constantly take from anyone. So those who made the feng sacrifice on Mount Tai and the shan sacrifice at Liangfu, who changed the surname, became king, and whose virtue was like Yao and Shun, were seventy-two in number. A king is one whom Heaven gives; those he attacked were all ones whom Heaven took from. If one regards only Tang's and Wu's attack on Jie and Zhou as unrighteous, then the seventy-two kings also had campaigns; setting aside your theory, all seventy-two kings would be regarded as unrighteous. So Xia lacked the Way and Yin attacked it, Yin lacked the Way and Zhou attacked it, Zhou lacked the Way and Qin attacked it, Qin lacked the Way and Han attacked it. The one who has the Way attacking the one who lacks it is Heaven's principle, which has been so for a very long time; could it be that it began with Tang and Wu! Those who criticize Tang and Wu's attack on Jie and Zhou will also criticize Qin's attack on Zhou and Han's attack on Qin, not only not knowing Heaven's principle but also not understanding human ritual. By ritual, a son conceals his father's evil; now to have the attacker convicted of unrighteousness should be avoided for the sake of the state; how can one speak like a slanderer? This is called one sentence committing two faults. A ruler is one who controls commands, so that when orders are given they are carried out and when bans are set they stop. Now Jie and Zhou gave orders to the world that were not carried out and set bans that did not stop; how could they still subject the world to them! If they could really not subject the world, how can one say Tang and Wu murdered their rulers?

率得十六萬國，三分之，則各度爵而制服，量祿而用財，飲食有量，衣服有制，宮室有度，畜產人徒有數，舟車甲器有禁；生有軒冕之服位貴祿田宅之分，死有棺槨絞衾壙襲之度。雖有賢才美體，無其爵，不敢服其服；雖有富家多貲，無其祿，不敢用其財。天子服有文章，不得以燕公以朝，將軍大夫不得以燕將軍大夫以朝官吏，命士止於帶緣，散民不敢服雜採，百工商賈不敢服狐貉，刑餘戮民不敢服絲玄纁乘馬，謂之服制。

Roughly one hundred and sixty thousand states were obtained, divided into three parts, and each is to measure ranks and set dress, weigh salaries and use wealth. Food and drink have measure, clothing has regulation, palaces and houses have limits, livestock and retinue have numbers, and boats, carriages, armor and implements have prohibitions. While alive there are limits of dress and position with carriage and cap, honored salary, fields and houses; after death there are regulations for coffin and outer coffin, binding cloths, quilts, tomb and burial clothes. Even those with worthy talent and fine looks, without the corresponding rank, do not dare to wear that dress; even those from rich families with much wealth, without the corresponding salary, do not dare to use that wealth. The Son of Heaven's dress has patterned decoration and may not be used at leisure; dukes use it to attend court; generals and grandees may not use it at leisure; generals and grandees use it to meet officials. Titled scholars are limited to belt and trim; ordinary people do not dare to wear mixed-color embroidered clothing; artisans and merchants do not dare to wear fox and badger fur; people who have been punished or humiliated do not dare to wear silk or black-and-dark garments, and do not dare to ride horses. This is called the dress system.

孔子曰：“不患貧而患不均。”故有所積重，則有所空虛矣。大富則驕，大貧則憂，憂則為盜，驕則為暴，此眾人之情也。聖者則於眾人之情，見亂之所從生，故其制人道而差上下也，使富者足以示貴而不至於驕，貧者足以養生而不至於憂，以此為度而調均之，是以財不匱而上下相安，故易治也。今世棄其度制，而各從其欲，欲無所窮，而俗得自恣，其勢無極，大人病不足於上，而小民羸瘠於下，則富者愈貪利而不肯為義，貧者日犯禁而不可得止，是世之所以難治也。

Confucius said: "Do not worry about poverty; worry about inequality." So where there is heavy accumulation, there is emptiness elsewhere. Too rich makes one proud, too poor makes one worried. Worry leads to theft, pride leads to violence; this is the feeling of the multitude. The sage, following the multitude's feelings and seeing where disorder arises, set up the human way and graded high and low, so that the rich are enough to show honor yet not become proud, and the poor are enough to support life yet not become worried, using this as a measure to even things out, so wealth is not scarce, high and low are at peace, and so it is easy to govern. Now the age has abandoned that system and each follows desire; desire has no end, customs are allowed to indulge themselves, and the momentum has no limit: the great men above suffer from insufficiency, and the small people below are thin and withered, so the rich become more greedy for profit and unwilling to practice righteousness, and the poor daily violate prohibitions and cannot be stopped, which is why the age is hard to govern.

孔子曰：“君子不盡利以遺民。”詩云：“彼其遺秉，此有不歛穧，伊寡婦之利。”故君子仕則不稼，田則不漁，食時不力珍，大夫不坐羊，士不坐犬。詩曰：“採葑採菲，無以下體，德音莫違，及爾同死。”以此防民，民猶忘義而爭利，以亡其身。天不重與，有角不得有上齒，故已有大者，不得有小者，天數也。夫已有大者，又兼小者，天不能足之，況人乎！故明聖者象天所為為制度，使諸有大奉祿，亦皆不得兼小利、與民爭利業，乃天理也。

Confucius said: "The gentleman does not take all the profit but leaves some for the common people." The Book of Songs, Lesser Odes, Great Fields, says: "There the dropped sheaf, here the ears left ungathered, are the widow's profit." So a gentleman who holds office does not farm, who farms does not fish, at meals does not strive for delicacies, a grandee does not sit while slaughtering a sheep, and a knight does not sit while slaughtering a dog. The Book of Songs, Odes of Bei, Valley Wind, says: "In gathering turnips and radishes, do not discard the roots; if fine words are not forgotten, I will be with you until death." With this the people are guarded against, yet they still forget righteousness and fight for profit, to the point of destroying themselves. Heaven does not give twice: those with horns do not also have upper teeth, so one who already has the large does not also have the small, which is Heaven's number. One who already has the large and also holds the small cannot be satisfied even by Heaven, how much less by humans! So the wise and sage take the image of Heaven's works to set institutions, so that those with large salaries may not also take small profits and compete with the people for the profit of their livelihoods, which is Heaven's principle.

凡百亂之源，皆出嫌疑纖微，以漸寖稍長，至於大。聖人章其疑者，別其微者，絕其纖者，不得嫌，以蚤防之。聖人之道，眾堤防之類也，謂之度制，謂之禮節，故貴賤有等，衣服有制，朝廷有位，鄉黨有序，則民有所讓而不敢爭，所以一之也。書曰：“轝服有庸，誰敢弗讓，敢不敬應？”此之謂也。

In general the roots of the hundred kinds of disorder all come from suspicion and the tiny, which gradually soak in and slowly grow until they become great. The sage marks out what is doubtful, distinguishes what is fine, and cuts off the minute, not letting suspicion stand, in order to guard against it early. The Way of the sage is like the many embankments, called regulation and called ritual measure. So when the honored and humble have ranks, clothing has regulation, the court has places, and the villages have order, the people have something to yield to and do not dare to contend, which unifies them. The Book of Documents says: "Carriages and robes have constant rules; who dares not yield, who dares not respond with reverence?" This is what it means.

凡衣裳之生也，為蓋形暖身也，然而染五采、飾文章者，非以為益冗膚血氣之情也，將以貴貴尊賢，而明別上下之倫，使教前行，使化易成，為治為之也。若去其度制，使人人從其欲，快其意，以逐無窮，是大亂人倫而靡斯財用也，失文采所遂生之意矣。上下之倫不別，其勢不能相治，故苦亂也；嗜慾之物無限，其勢不能相足，故苦貧也。今欲以亂為治，以貧為富，非反之制度不可。古者天子衣文，諸侯不以燕，大夫衣綧，士不以燕，庶人衣縵，此其大略也。

In general clothing arose to cover the body and warm the person; but dyeing it in five colors and adorning it with patterns is not because it benefits the feelings of skin and blood, but to honor those who should be honored and respect the worthy, and to make the order of high and low plain, so that teaching comes first and moral influence is easily achieved; it was made for the sake of government. If that system is removed and everyone follows desire and indulges his own mind in chasing the endless, it greatly disorders human relations and exhausts these resources, and loses the original meaning for which patterns arose. If the order of high and low is not distinguished, the situation cannot govern one another, so there is suffering from disorder; if things of desire have no limit, the situation cannot satisfy one another, so there is suffering from poverty. Now to turn disorder into order and poverty into wealth, the institutions must be reversed. In ancient times the Son of Heaven wore patterned clothing, and the lords did not use it for leisure; grandees wore plain clothing, and knights did not use it for leisure; commoners wore unpatterned silk. This is the outline.

春秋曰：“會宰周公。”又曰：“公會齊侯、宋公、鄭伯、許男、滕子。”又曰：“初獻六羽。”傳曰：“天子三公稱公，王者之後稱公，其餘大國稱侯，小國稱伯、子、男。”凡五等，故周爵五等，士三品，文多而實少；春秋三等，合伯、子、男為一爵，士二品，文少而實多。春秋曰：“荊。”傳曰：“氏不若人，人不若名，名不若字。”凡四等，命曰附庸，三代共之。然則其地列奈何？曰：天子邦圻千里，公、侯百里，伯七十里，子、男五十里，附庸：字者方三十里，名者方二十里，人氏者方十五里。春秋曰：“宰周公。”傳曰：“天子三公。”“祭伯來。”傳曰：“天子大夫。”“宰渠伯糾。”傳曰：“下大夫。”“石尚。”傳曰：“天子之士也。”“王人。”傳曰：“微者，謂下士也。”凡五等。春秋曰：“作三軍。”傳曰：“何以書？譏，何譏爾？古者、上卿、下卿，上士、下士。”凡四等，小國之大夫與次國下卿同，次國大夫與大國下卿同，大國下大夫與天子下士同，二十四等，祿八差，有大功德者受大爵土，功德小者受小爵土，大材者執大官位，小材者受小官位，如其能宣，治之至也。故萬人者曰英，千人者曰俊，百人者曰傑，十人者曰豪，豪傑俊英不相陵，故治天下如視諸掌上。其數何法以然？曰：天子分左右五等，三百六十三人，法天一歲之數，五時色之象也；通佐十上卿與下卿，而二百二十人，天庭之象也；倍諸侯之數也。諸侯之外佐四等，百二十人，法四時六甲之數也；通佐五與下，而六十人，法日辰之數也。佐之必三三而相復何？曰：時三月而成，大辰三而成象。諸侯之爵或五何？法天地之數也，五官亦然。然則立置有司分指數奈何？曰：諸侯，大國四軍，古之制也，其一軍以奉公家也。凡口軍三者何？曰：大國十六萬口，而立口軍三。何以言之？

The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "Met the Chief Minister Duke of Zhou." It also says: "The Duke met the Marquis of Qi, the Duke of Song, the Earl of Zheng, the Baron of Xu and the Viscount of Teng." It also says: "For the first time six rows of feather dancers were offered." The commentary says: "The Three Dukes of the Son of Heaven are called duke, the descendants of kings are called duke, the other great states are marquis, and small states are earl, viscount and baron." In all there are five grades, so the Zhou ranks have five grades and scholars have three classes, with more form and less substance; the Spring and Autumn Annals has three grades, combining earl, viscount and baron into one rank, with scholars in two classes, with less form and more substance. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "Jing." The commentary says: "Using a clan name is not as good as using 'people,' using 'people' is not as good as using a name, and using a name is not as good as using a courtesy name." In all there are four grades, named dependent vassals, which the Three Dynasties share. Then how is their land ordered? It is said: the Son of Heaven's royal domain is a thousand li, dukes and marquises a hundred li, earls seventy li, viscounts and barons fifty li; dependent vassals: those called by courtesy name thirty li, those called by name twenty li, those called by "people" or clan fifteen li. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "Chief Minister Duke of Zhou." The commentary says: "One of the Son of Heaven's Three Dukes." "The Earl of Ji came." The commentary says: "A grandee of the Son of Heaven." "Zai Qubo Jiu." The commentary says: "A lower grandee." "Shi Shang." The commentary says: "A knight of the Son of Heaven." "The king's man." The commentary says: "A lowly person, meaning a lower knight." In all there are five grades. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "Made three armies." The commentary says: "Why is it written? It is criticism. What is criticized? In ancient times there were upper ministers and lower ministers, upper knights and lower knights." In all there are four grades. A grandee of a small state is the same as a lower minister of a secondary state, a grandee of a secondary state is the same as a lower minister of a great state, and a lower grandee of a great state is the same as a lower knight of the Son of Heaven, twenty-four grades in all, with eight differences in salary. Those with great merit and virtue receive great rank and great land; those of small merit and virtue receive small rank and small land; great talents are given great official posts and small talents small posts, as their abilities should be expressed; this is the utmost of governing. So one who surpasses ten thousand is called ying, one who surpasses a thousand is called jun, one who surpasses a hundred is called jie, and one who surpasses ten is called hao. Hao, jie, jun and ying do not overstep one another, and so governing the world is like looking at something in the palm of one's hand. What do these numbers take as their model? It is said: the Son of Heaven has five grades to the left and right, three hundred and sixty-three persons, modeled on the number of days in Heaven's year, the image of the colors of the five seasons; with the assistants of ten upper and lower ministers, in all two hundred and twenty persons, the image of the heavenly court, double the number of the lords. The lords' outer assistants have four grades, one hundred and twenty persons, modeled on the four seasons and the six jia; with the assistants of the five and below, in all sixty persons, modeled on the number of days and double hours. The assistants must cycle in threes by threes; why? It is said: one season completes with three months, and the great chen forms an image in threes. Why are the lords' ranks sometimes five? Modeled on the number of Heaven and Earth, as are the five offices. Then how are officials established and quotas assigned? It is said: for lords, a great state has four armies, which was the ancient system, one of them used to serve the ducal house. In general to establish three armies by population, why? It is said: a great state has one hundred and sixty thousand people, and three population-armies are established. On what basis is this said?

曰：以井田準數之，方里而一井，一井而九百畝而立口，方里八家，一家百畝，以食五口，上農夫耕百畝，食九口，次八人，次七人，次六人，次五人，多寡相補，率百畝而三口，方里而二十四口，方里者十，得二百四十口，方十里為方里者百，得二千四百口，方百里為方里者萬，得二十四萬口，法三分而除其一，城池、郭邑、屋室、閭巷、街路市、官府、園囿、萎●、臺沼、椽採，得良田方十里者六十六，與方里六十六，定率得十六萬口，三分之，則各五萬三千三百三十三口，為大國口軍三，此公侯也。天子地方千里，為方百里者百，亦三分除其一，定得田方百里者六十六，與方十里者六十六，定率得千六百萬口，九分之，各得百七十七萬七千七百七十七口，為京口軍九，三京口軍以奉王家。故天子立一後，一世夫人。中左右夫人、四姬、三良人，立一世子、三公、九卿、二十七大夫、八十一元士、二百四十三下士，有七上卿、二十一下卿、六十三元士、百二十九下士。王后置一大傅大母、三伯、三丞、世夫人、四姬、三良人、各有師傅。世子一人太傅三傅、三率三少。士入仕宿衛天子者，比下士，下士者如上士之下數。王后御衛者，上下御各五人，世夫人、中左右夫人、四姬、上下御各五人，三良人各五人，世子妃姬及士衛者，如公侯之制。王后傅、上下史五人，三伯、上下史各五人，少伯、史各五人。世子太傅、上下史各五人，少傅、亦各五人，三率三下率亦各五人。三公、上下史各五人；卿、上下史各五人；大夫、上下史各五人；元士、上下史各五人；上下卿、上下士之史、上下亦各五人；卿、大夫、元士、臣各三人。故公侯方百里，三分除其一，定得田方十里者六十六，與方里六十六，定率得十六萬口，三分之，為大國口軍三，而立大國。

(Continuing:) It is said: use the well-field system to calculate the numbers. One square li is one well; one well is nine hundred mu, and households are established: one square li has eight families, each family a hundred mu, to support five persons. A top farmer cultivating a hundred mu supports nine persons, the next eight, the next seven, the next six, the next five, more and less compensating one another, roughly a hundred mu supports three persons, and a square li twenty-four persons. Ten square li gives two hundred and forty persons; ten li on each side is a hundred square li, giving two thousand four hundred persons; a hundred li on each side is ten thousand square li, giving two hundred and forty thousand persons. The model removes one third: city walls, outer towns, houses, lanes, streets and markets, offices, gardens and parks, [character defective in the base text], terraces and ponds, rafters and fittings, giving sixty-six units of good fields ten li square, plus sixty-six square li, a fixed rate yielding one hundred and sixty thousand persons, divided into three parts, each with fifty-three thousand three hundred and thirty-three persons, as the three population-armies of a great state, which is the dukes and marquises. The Son of Heaven's land is a thousand li on a side, which is a hundred units of a hundred li square; likewise removing one third, it gives sixty-six units of fields a hundred li square, plus sixty-six units ten li square, a fixed rate yielding sixteen million persons, divided into nine parts, each with one million seven hundred and seventy-seven thousand seven hundred and seventy-seven persons, as the nine capital population-armies, with three capital armies used to serve the royal house. So the Son of Heaven establishes one queen, one heir's consort, consorts of the middle, left and right, four ji, and three liangren; establishes one crown prince, three dukes, nine ministers, twenty-seven grandees, eighty-one senior knights and two hundred and forty-three lower knights; there are seven upper ministers, twenty-one lower ministers, sixty-three senior knights and one hundred and twenty-nine lower knights. The queen is provided with one grand tutor-matron, three elders and three assistants; the heir's consort, four ji and three liangren each have tutors. The crown prince has one grand tutor, three tutors, three commanders and three juniors. Knights who enter service guarding the Son of Heaven are equated with lower knights; lower knights are in the numbers of the upper knights and below as above. The queen's guards have five upper and five lower attendants each; the heir's consort, the consorts of the middle, left and right, and the four ji each have five upper and five lower attendants; the three liangren each have five. The crown prince's consorts and knight guards follow the system of dukes and marquises. The queen's tutor has five upper and lower scribes; the three elders have five upper and lower scribes each; the junior elders and scribes five each. The crown prince's grand tutor has five upper and lower scribes each; the junior tutors also five each; the three commanders and three lower commanders also five each. The three dukes have five upper and lower scribes each; ministers have five upper and lower scribes each; grandees have five upper and lower scribes each; senior knights have five upper and lower scribes each; the scribes of upper and lower ministers and upper and lower knights also five each above and below; ministers, grandees and senior knights each have three servants. So for dukes and marquises, with land a hundred li on a side, removing one third gives sixty-six units of fields ten li square, plus sixty-six square li, a fixed rate yielding one hundred and sixty thousand persons, divided into three parts as the three population-armies of a great state, and a great state is established.

一夫人、一世婦、左右婦、三姬、二良人，立一世子、三卿、九大夫、二十七上士、八十一下士、亦有五通大夫、立上下士。上卿位比天子之元士，今八百石，下卿六百石，上士四百石，下士三百石。夫人一傅母、三伯、三丞、世婦、左右婦、三姬、二良人、各有師保。世子、一上傅丞。士宿衛公者，比公者，比上卿者，有三人，下卿六人，比上下士者，如上下之數。夫人衛御者、上下御各五人，世婦、左右婦、上下御各五人，二卿、御各五人。世子上傅、上下史各五人，丞、史各五人，三卿、九大夫、上士、史各五人，下士、史各五人，通大夫、士、上下史各五人，卿、臣二人，此公侯之制也。公侯賢者為州方伯，錫斧鉞，置虎賁百人，故伯七十里，七十四十九，三分除其一，定得田方十里者二十八，與方十里者六十六，定率得十萬九千二百一十二口，為次國口軍三，而立次國。一夫人、世婦、左右婦、三良人、二孺子；立一世子、三卿、九大夫、二十七上士、八十一下士，與五通大夫、五上士、十五下士；其上卿位比大國之下卿，今六百石，下卿四百石，上士三百石，下士二百石。夫人一傅母、三伯、三丞、世婦、左右婦、三良人、二御人、各有師保。世子、一上下傅，士宿衛公者，比上卿者三人，下卿六人，比上下士，如上下之數。夫人御衛者、上下御各五人，世婦、左右婦、上下御各五人，二御、各五人。世子上傅、上下史各五人，丞、史各五人，三卿、九大夫、上下史各五人，下士、史各五人，通大夫、上下史各五人，卿、臣二人。故子男方五十里，五五二十五，為方十里者六十六，定率得四萬口，為小國口軍三，而立小國。

(Continuing:) One consort, one heir's wife, left and right wives, three ji, two liangren; establish one crown prince, three ministers, nine grandees, twenty-seven upper knights and eighty-one lower knights, and also five general grandees, with upper and lower knights established. The place of an upper minister is equated with the Son of Heaven's senior knight, now eight hundred shi; a lower minister six hundred shi, an upper knight four hundred shi, a lower knight three hundred shi. The consort has one tutor-matron, three elders and three assistants; the heir's wife, left and right wives, three ji and two liangren each have tutors and guardians. The crown prince has one upper tutor-assistant. Knights guarding the duke are equated with upper ministers in three persons, lower ministers six persons, and equated with upper and lower knights in the same numbers above and below. The consort's guards have five upper and five lower attendants each; the heir's wife and the left and right wives have five upper and lower attendants each; the two ministers have five attendants each. The crown prince's upper tutor has five upper and lower scribes each; assistants and scribes five each; three ministers, nine grandees and upper knights have five scribes each; lower knights five scribes each; general grandees and knights have five upper and lower scribes each; ministers have two servants. This is the system of dukes and marquises. Among the dukes and marquises, the worthy and capable become provincial regional chiefs, are given axes and halberds, and are provided with a hundred tiger guards. So for an earl of seventy li, seven times seven is forty-nine, removing one third gives twenty-eight units of fields ten li square, plus sixty-six units ten li square, a fixed rate yielding one hundred and nine thousand two hundred and twelve persons, as the three population-armies of a secondary state, and a secondary state is established. One consort, heir's wife, left and right wives, three liangren, two young ones; establish one crown prince, three ministers, nine grandees, twenty-seven upper knights and eighty-one lower knights, with five general grandees, five upper knights and fifteen lower knights. His upper minister's place is equated with the lower minister of a great state, now six hundred shi; lower minister four hundred shi, upper knight three hundred shi, lower knight two hundred shi. The consort has one tutor-matron, three elders and three assistants; the heir's wife, left and right wives, three liangren and two attendants each have tutors and guardians. The crown prince has one upper and lower tutor. Knights guarding the duke are equated with upper ministers in three persons, lower ministers six persons, and equated with upper and lower knights in the same numbers above and below. The consort's attendants have five upper and five lower each; the heir's wife and the left and right wives have five upper and lower attendants each; the two attendants five each. The crown prince's upper tutor has five upper and lower scribes each; assistants and scribes five each; three ministers and nine grandees have five upper and lower scribes each; lower knights have five scribes each; general grandees have five upper and lower scribes each; ministers have two servants. So viscounts and barons with land fifty li on a side, five times five is twenty-five, which becomes sixty-six units ten li square, a fixed rate yielding forty thousand persons, as the three population-armies of a small state, and a small state is established.

夫人、世婦、左右婦、三良人、二孺子，立一世子、三卿、九大夫、二十七上士、八十一下士、與五通大夫、五上士、十五下士，其上卿比次國之下卿，今四百石，下卿三百石，上士二百石，下士百石。夫人一傅母、三伯、三丞、世婦、左右婦、三良人、一御人、各有師保。世子、一上下傅，士宿衛公者、比上卿者三人，下卿六人。夫人御衛者、上下御各五人，世婦、左右婦、上下御各五人，二御人、各五人。世子上傅、上下史各五人，三卿、九大夫、上下史各五人，士、各五人，通大夫、上下史亦各五人，卿、臣二人，此周制也。春秋、合伯子男為一等，故附庸字者、地方三十里，三三而九，三分而除其一，定得田方十里者六，定率得一萬四千四百口，為口師三。而立一宗婦、二妾，一世子、宰丕、丞一、士一、秩士五人。宰視子男下卿，今三百石。宗婦有師保，御者三人，妾各二人。世子一傅，士宿衛君者比上卿，下卿一人，上下各如其數。世子傅、上下史各五人，下良五。稱名善者、地方半字君之地，九半，三分除其一，定得田方十里者三，定率得七千二百口。一世子宰，今二百石，下四半三半二十五。三分除其一，定得田方十里者一，與方里者五，定率得三千六百口，一世子宰，今百石，史五人，宗婦、仕衛、世子臣。

(Continuing:) Consort, heir's wife, left and right wives, three liangren, two young ones; establish one crown prince, three ministers, nine grandees, twenty-seven upper knights and eighty-one lower knights, with five general grandees, five upper knights and fifteen lower knights. His upper minister is equated with the lower minister of a secondary state, now four hundred shi; lower minister three hundred shi, upper knight two hundred shi, lower knight a hundred shi. The consort has one tutor-matron, three elders and three assistants; the heir's wife, left and right wives, three liangren and one attendant each have tutors and guardians. The crown prince has one upper and lower tutor. Knights guarding the duke are equated with upper ministers in three persons, lower ministers six persons. The consort's attendants have five upper and five lower each; the heir's wife and left and right wives have five upper and lower attendants each; the two attendants five each. The crown prince's upper tutor has five upper and lower scribes each; three ministers and nine grandees have five upper and lower scribes each; knights five each; general grandees also have five upper and lower scribes each; ministers have two servants. This is the Zhou system. The Spring and Autumn Annals combines earl, viscount and baron into one grade, so dependent vassals called by courtesy name have land of thirty li, three times three is nine, removing one third gives six units of fields ten li square, a fixed rate yielding fourteen thousand four hundred persons, as three division-forces. And they establish one senior wife, two concubines, one heir, a steward and one assistant, one knight, and five salaried knights. The steward is equated with the lower minister of a viscount or baron, now three hundred shi. The senior wife has tutors and guardians, three attendants, and two for each concubine. The crown prince has one tutor. Knights guarding the lord are equated with upper ministers, and one lower minister, with the upper and lower each according to their numbers. The crown prince's tutor has five upper and lower scribes, with five lower good ones. Those called by name and good have land half that of the lord called by courtesy name, half of nine, removing one third gives three units of fields ten li square, a fixed rate yielding seven thousand two hundred persons. One heir and a steward, now two hundred shi. Below that, half of four and half of three gives twenty-five, removing one third gives one unit of fields ten li square, plus five square li, a fixed rate yielding three thousand six hundred persons. One heir and a steward, now a hundred shi, five scribes, and the senior wife, retainer guards and the crown prince's servants.

春秋之所治，人與我也；所以治人與我者，仁與義也；以仁安人，以義正我；故仁之為言人也，義之為言我也，言名以別矣。仁之於人，義之於我者，不可不察也，眾人不察，乃反以仁自裕，而以義設人，詭其處而逆其理，鮮不亂矣。是故人莫欲亂，而大抵常亂，凡以闇於人我之分，而不省仁義之所在也。是故春秋為仁義法，仁之法在愛人，不在愛我；義之法在正我，不在正人；我不自正，雖能正人，弗予為義；人不被其愛，雖厚自愛，不予為仁。昔者，晉靈公殺膳宰以淑飲食，彈大夫以娛其意，非不厚自愛也，然而不得為淑人者，不愛人也。質於愛民以下，至於鳥獸昆蟲莫不愛，不愛，奚足謂仁！仁者，愛人之名也，嶲傳無大之之辭，自為追，則善其所恤遠也；兵已加焉，乃往救之，則弗美；未至，豫備之，則美之，善其救害之先也。夫救蚤而先之，則害無由起，而天下無害矣。然則觀物之動，而先覺其萌，絕亂塞害於將然而未形之時，春秋之志也，其明至矣，非堯舜之智，知禮之本，庸能當此；故救害而先，知之明也，公之所恤遠，而春秋美之，詳其美恤遠之意，則天地之間，然後快其仁矣，非三王之德，選賢之精，庸能如此。是以知明先，以仁厚遠，遠而愈賢，近而愈不肖者，愛也，故王者愛及四夷，霸者愛及諸侯，安者愛及封內，危者愛及旁側，亡者愛及獨身，獨身者，雖立天子諸侯之位，一夫之人耳，無臣民之用矣，如此者，莫之亡而自亡也。春秋不言伐梁者，而言梁亡，蓋愛獨及其身者也，故曰：仁者愛人，不在愛我，此其法也。義雲者，非謂正人，謂正我，雖有亂世枉上，莫不欲正人，奚謂義！昔者，楚靈王討陳蔡之賊，齊桓公執袁濤塗之罪，非不能正人也，然而春秋弗予，不得為義者，我不正也；闔廬能正楚蔡之難矣，而春秋奪之義辭，以其身不正也；

What the Spring and Autumn Annals governs is others and the self; what is used to govern others and the self is humaneness and righteousness. Humaneness is used to settle others, and righteousness to rectify the self. So the word for humaneness (ren) speaks of others (ren), and the word for righteousness (yi) speaks of the self (wo), and the names are divided accordingly. Humaneness toward others and righteousness toward the self must be carefully examined. The multitude do not know how to examine, and instead use humaneness to be lenient with themselves and righteousness to make demands of others; having put the positions in the wrong place and reversed the principle, they rarely avoid disorder. Thus no one wishes for disorder, yet disorder is nearly constant, all because people are blind to the distinction between others and the self and do not examine where humaneness and righteousness lie. Hence the Spring and Autumn Annals is the model of humaneness and righteousness: the model of humaneness lies in loving others, not in loving oneself; the model of righteousness lies in rectifying oneself, not in rectifying others. If I myself am not upright, even if I can rectify others, he is not given the name of righteousness; if others are not loved by him, even if he loves himself deeply, he is not given the name of humaneness. Formerly Duke Ling of Jin killed his cook to improve his meals and shot at grand masters with a slingshot for amusement; it was not that he did not love himself deeply, yet he could not be called a good man because he did not love others. From loving the people on down to birds, beasts and insects, there is nothing one does not love; if one does not love, how is that enough to be called humane! Humaneness is the name for loving others. When Duke Xi sent out troops, there was no exaggerated wording; when he went in pursuit himself, it praised the distance of his concern; when troops had already been inflicted on others and only then he rescued them, it did not praise him; when he was prepared in advance before they arrived, it praised him, commending that he rescued from harm beforehand. When one rescues early and acts ahead, harm has no way to arise, and there is no harm in the world. So observing the stirring of things, perceiving their sprouts in advance, and cutting off disorder and blocking harm at the point when it is about to arise but has not yet taken form, is the aim of the Spring and Autumn Annals, and its brightness reaches the utmost. Without the wisdom of Yao and Shun and knowing the root of ritual, who could bear this? So rescuing from harm and acting ahead is the brightness of wisdom. That Duke Xi's concern reached far, the Spring and Autumn Annals praises; examining the meaning of praising far-reaching concern, between Heaven and Earth only then can one give full scope to one's humaneness; without the virtue of the Three Kings and the discernment in selecting the worthy, who could do this? Therefore wisdom is bright in advance, and one is generous in humaneness toward the distant; the more distant the more worthy, the nearer the more unworthy, and this is love. So the love of a true king reaches the four barbarians, the love of a hegemon reaches the lords, the love of one who is secure reaches inside his borders, the love of one in peril reaches those beside him, and the love of one whose state is perishing reaches only his own person. One who loves only his own person, even if he stands in the position of Son of Heaven or lord, is no more than a commoner, with no subjects to use. Such a person is not destroyed by others but destroys himself. The Spring and Autumn Annals does not say that Liang was attacked but says that Liang perished, probably because its love reached only itself. So it is said: humaneness is loving others, not loving oneself; this is its model. What is called righteousness does not mean rectifying others but rectifying oneself. Even rulers of disordered ages and crooked rulers all wish to rectify others; how could that be called righteousness! Formerly King Ling of Chu punished the rebels of Chen and Cai, and Duke Huan of Qi punished the crime of Yuan Taotu; it was not that they could not rectify others, yet the Spring and Autumn Annals does not give them the name, and they cannot be called righteous, because they were not upright themselves. Helu was able to settle the troubles of Chu and Cai, yet the Spring and Autumn Annals deprived him of the word righteousness, because his own person was not upright;

潞子之於諸侯，無所能正，春秋予之有義，其身正也；趨而利也，故曰：義在正我，不在正人，此其法也。夫我無之而求諸人，我有之而誹諸人，人之所不能受也，其理逆矣，何可謂義！義者，謂宜在我者，宜在我者，而後可以稱義，故言義者，合我與宜以為一言，以此操之，義之為言我也，故曰：有為而得義者，謂之自得，有為而失義者，謂之自失；人好義者，謂之自好，人不好義者，謂之不自好；以此參之，義我也明矣。是義與仁殊，仁謂往，義謂來；仁大遠，義大近；愛在人，謂之仁，義在我，謂之義；仁主人，義主我也；故曰：仁者，人也，義者，我也，此之謂也。君子求仁義之別，以紀人我之間，然後辨乎內外之分，而著於順逆之處也，是故內治反理以正身，據禮以勸福，外治推恩以廣施，寬制以容眾。孔子謂冉子曰：治民者，先富之而後加教。語樊遲曰：治身者，先難後獲。以此之謂治身之與治民所先後者不同焉矣。詩曰：“飲之食之，教之誨之。”先飲食而後教誨，謂治人也；又曰：“坎坎伐輻，彼君子兮，不素餐兮！”先其事，後其食，謂治身也。春秋刺上之過，而矜下之苦；小惡在外弗舉，在我書而誹之；凡此六者，以仁治人，義治我；躬自厚而薄責於外，此之謂也。且論已見之，而人不察，曰：君子攻其惡，不攻人之惡。不攻人之惡，非仁之寬與！自攻其惡，非義之全與！此之謂仁造人，義造我，何以異乎！故自稱其惡，謂之情，稱人之惡，謂之賊；求諸己，謂之厚，求諸人，謂之薄；自責以備，謂之明，責人以備，謂之惑；是故以自治之節治人，是居上不寬也，以治人之度自治，是為禮不敬也；為禮不敬則傷行，而民弗尊，居上不寬則傷厚，而民弗親；弗親則弗信，弗尊則弗敬；二端之政詭於上而僻行之，則誹於下；仁義之處，可無論乎！夫目不視，弗見；心弗論，不得；

(The text continued:) The Viscount of Lu, among the lords, was able to rectify no one, yet the Spring and Autumn Annals gives him righteousness, because his own person was upright. To turn toward and seek profit; so it is said: righteousness lies in rectifying the self and not in rectifying others; this is its model. If I do not have it myself yet demand it of others, or if I have it myself yet slander others for having it, people cannot accept this, for the principle is reversed; how could it be called righteousness! Righteousness means what is fitting in me; when it is fitting in me, then it can be called righteousness. So the word righteousness (yi) joins "me" and "fitting" into one character. By this test, the word righteousness speaks of the self. So it is said: one who acts and gains righteousness is called self-attained; one who acts and loses righteousness is called self-lost; a person who likes righteousness is called self-loving; a person who does not like righteousness is called not self-loving. Testing it this way, it is clear that righteousness is the self. Thus righteousness differs from humaneness: humaneness speaks of going, righteousness speaks of coming; humaneness is great in the distance, righteousness is great in the near; love in others is called humaneness; righteousness in the self is called righteousness; humaneness is focused on others, righteousness is focused on the self. So it is said: humaneness is others; righteousness is the self. This is what is meant. The gentleman seeks the distinction between humaneness and righteousness, using it as the guiding thread between others and the self, and then discerns the boundaries of inner and outer and makes clear the places of accord and opposition. For this reason inner governance turns back to principle to rectify oneself and relies on ritual to seek blessing; outer governance extends kindness to bestow widely and relaxes regulations to accommodate the multitude. Confucius said to Ranzi: one who governs the people first makes them rich, then adds teaching. He said to Fan Chi: one who governs his own person first goes through difficulty, then gains the harvest. This explains that in governing the self and governing the people the priorities differ. The Minor Odes, "Mianman," says: "Give them drink, give them food, teach them, instruct them." Food and drink first and then instruction speaks of governing others; and it also says: "Clang, clang, he cuts the spokes; that gentleman, he does not eat for nothing!" Work first, then eat, which speaks of governing the self. The Spring and Autumn Annals criticizes the faults of those above and pities the suffering of those below; small evils abroad it does not report, but those in my own state it writes down and criticizes. These six points use humaneness to govern others and righteousness to govern the self; being generous to oneself and mild in blame outside is what is meant. Moreover, the principle is now manifest, yet people do not know to examine it, and say: the gentleman attacks his own evil and does not attack the evil of others. Is not not attacking others' evil the generosity of humaneness! Is not attacking one's own evil the completeness of righteousness! This is what is called humaneness completing others and righteousness completing the self; what is the difference! So to name one's own evil is called being truthful; to name the evil of others is called harming; to seek it in oneself is called generous; to seek it in others is called stingy; to blame oneself with completeness is called clear-sighted; to blame others with completeness is called confused. Therefore to govern others with the measure for governing oneself is to be ungenerous in a high position; to govern oneself with the standard for governing others is to perform ritual without reverence. To perform ritual without reverence injures conduct, and the people do not respect one; to be ungenerous in a high position injures generosity, and the people are not close. If they are not close they do not trust, and if they do not respect they do not revere. When government on these two ends goes astray above and conduct is crooked, one will be criticized below. Can one not discuss where humaneness and righteousness lie! If the eyes do not look, they do not see; if the heart does not reflect, it does not obtain;

雖有天下之至味，弗嚼，弗知其旨也；雖有聖人之至道，弗論，不知其義也。

(The text continued:) even with the best flavors in the world, if one does not chew, one does not know their sweetness; even with the sage's best Way, if one does not study it deeply, one does not know its righteousness.

莫近於仁，莫急於智。不仁而有勇力材能，則狂而操利兵也；不智而辯慧獧給，則迷而乘良馬也。故不仁不智而有材能，將以其材能，以輔其邪狂之心，而贊其僻違之行，適足以大其非，而甚其惡耳。其強足以覆過，其御足以犯軸，其慧足以惑愚，其辨足以飾非，其堅足以斷闢，其嚴足以拒諫，此非無材能也，其施之不當，而處之不義也。有否心者，不可借便埶，其質愚者，不與利器，論之所謂不知人也者，恐不知別此等也。仁而不智，則愛而不別也；智而不仁，則知而不為也。故仁者所愛人類也，智者所以除其害也。

Nothing is closer than humaneness, and nothing is more urgent than wisdom. To lack humaneness yet have courage, strength and talent is to go mad and hold a sharp weapon; to lack wisdom yet be eloquent and quick is to lose the road while riding a fine horse. So one who lacks humaneness and wisdom but has talent will use his talent to aid a wicked and mad heart and to support crooked conduct that runs against principle, which is just enough to enlarge his error and heighten his evil. His strength is enough to cover up faults, his control is enough to override the axle, his cleverness is enough to bewilder fools, his eloquence is enough to gloss over errors, his firmness is enough to monopolize the law, and his sternness is enough to reject remonstrance. This is not lack of talent but misapplication, being placed in unrighteousness. A person with an unkind heart should not be lent a convenient position of power, and a person of foolish disposition should not be given sharp tools. What the discussions call not knowing people probably refers to this fear of not knowing how to distinguish such types. Humane but not wise, one loves but does not distinguish; wise but not humane, one knows but does not act. So what the humane love is human beings, and what the wise do is remove what harms them.

何謂仁？仁者，憯怛愛人，謹翕不爭，好惡敦倫，無傷惡之心，無隱忌之志，無嫉妒之氣，無感愁之慾，無險詖之事，無辟違之行，故其心舒，其志平，其氣和，其欲節，其事易，其行道，故能平易和理而無爭也，如此者，謂之仁。

What is called humaneness? Humaneness is to love people intensely, to be careful, harmonious and not contentious, to have likes and dislikes that are kind and fit the human relations, to have no heart that harms or hates, no intention of concealed jealousy, no spirit of envy, no desire to cause sorrow, no matter of treachery and bias, and no conduct that is crooked and against principle. So his heart is relaxed, his will is calm, his qi is harmonious, his desires have moderation, his affairs are simple, and his conduct accords with the Way, so he can be even and harmonious and without contention. Such a person is called humane.

何謂智？先言而後當。凡人慾舍行為，皆以其智，先規而後為之，其規是者，其所為得其所事，當其行，遂其名，榮其身，故利而無患，福及子孫，德加萬民，湯武是也。其規非者，其所為不得其所事，不當其行，不遂其名，辱害及其身，絕世無復，殘類滅宗亡國是也。故曰：莫急於智。智者見禍福遠，其知利害蚤，物動而知其化，事興而知其歸，見始而知其終，言之而無敢譁，立之而不可廢，取之而不可舍，前後不相悖，終始有類，思之而有復，及之而不可厭，其言寡而足，約而喻，簡而達，省而具，少而不可益，多而不可損，其動中倫，其言當務，如是者，謂之智。

What is called wisdom? To speak first and then be fitting. Whenever a person abandons or practices something, it depends on his wisdom, and he plans first and then acts. If the plan is right, what he does gets its matter and fits its conduct, completes its name, and brings glory to his person, so he has benefit without trouble, blessings extend to descendants and virtue is added to the myriad people, as with Tang and Wu. If the plan is wrong, what he does does not get its matter or fit its conduct, cannot complete its name, and disgrace and harm reach his person, so that the generations are cut off and cannot continue, and his kin are ruined and his clan and state destroyed. So it is said: nothing is more urgent than wisdom. The wise person sees calamity and fortune far ahead and knows benefit and harm early; as soon as a thing stirs he knows its changes, as soon as an affair arises he knows its outcome, and seeing the beginning he knows the end. When he speaks, no one dares to clamor; when he sets something up, it cannot be abolished; when he takes it up, it cannot be dropped. Before and after do not contradict each other, and beginning and end have a pattern. One can think about it again and again, and it can be reached without being tiresome. His words are few but sufficient, brief but able to instruct, simple but penetrating, abridged but complete; when few they cannot be increased, and when many they cannot be reduced. His actions fit the human relations and his words suit the affairs. Such a person is called wise.

其大略之類，天地之物，有不常之變者，謂之異，小者謂之災，災常先至，而異乃隨之，災者，天之譴也，異者，天之威也，譴之而不知，乃畏之以威，詩云：“畏天之威。”殆此謂也。凡災異之本，盡生於國家之失，國家之失乃始萌芽，而天出災害以譴告之；譴告之，而不知變，乃見怪異以驚駭之；驚駭之，尚不知畏恐，其殃咎乃至。以此見天意之仁，而不欲陷人也。謹案：災異以見天意，天意有欲也、有不欲也，所欲、所不欲者，人內以自省，宜有懲於心，外以觀其事，宜有驗於國，故見天意者之於災異也，畏之而不惡也，以為天欲振吾過，救吾失，故以此報我也。春秋之法，上變古易常，應是而有天災者，謂幸國。孔子曰：“天之所幸有為不善，而屢極。”楚莊王以天不見災，地不見孽，則禱之於山川曰：“天其將亡予邪！不說吾過，極吾罪也。”以此觀之，天災之應過而至也，異之顯明可畏也，此乃天之所欲救也，春秋之所獨幸也，莊王所以禱而請也，聖主賢君尚樂受忠臣之諫，而況受天譴也。

The general outline is of this kind: when things between Heaven and Earth have an unusual change, it is called an anomaly, and a small one is called a calamity. A calamity usually comes first, and an anomaly follows. A calamity is Heaven's reproach, and an anomaly is Heaven's awe-inspiring power. When one is reproached and still does not know, then awe is used to make one afraid. The Zhou Hymns, "Wo Jiang," says: "Fearing the awe of Heaven." Probably this is what is meant. In general the root of calamities and anomalies is born from the faults of the state. When the faults of a state have only begun to sprout, Heaven sends calamities to reproach and warn; when reproached and warned and one still does not know how to change, it shows strange things to startle; when startled and one still does not know to fear and be alarmed, then disaster arrives. From this one sees the humaneness of Heaven's intent, which does not wish to ruin people. I respectfully note: calamities and anomalies are used to show Heaven's intent. Heaven's intent has things it wants and things it does not want. What it wants and what it does not want, a person uses inwardly to examine himself, and should have a warning in his heart; outwardly he uses it to observe affairs and should have a response in state affairs. So those who see Heaven's intent fear calamities and anomalies and do not hate them, thinking that Heaven wishes to rouse my faults and rescue my errors, so it repays me with this. The model of the Spring and Autumn Annals: when those above change the ancient laws and alter the regular rules, and there are natural calamities in response, it is called a state that is lucky. Confucius said: "What Heaven treats as lucky is that someone does what is not good, yet repeatedly reaches the extreme." King Zhuang of Chu, because Heaven did not show calamity and Earth did not show ill omens, prayed to the mountains and rivers: "Is Heaven going to destroy me! It does not tell me my faults and lets my guilt reach the extreme." From this we see that natural calamities come in response to faults, and the clarity of anomalies is to be feared, and this is what Heaven wishes to rescue, what the Spring and Autumn Annals alone considers lucky, and what King Zhuang therefore prayed for and asked. Even sage lords and worthy rulers are glad to accept remonstrance from loyal ministers; how much more should they accept Heaven's reproach.

天之生人也，使人生義與利，利以養其體，義以養其心，心不得義，不能樂，體不得利，不能安，義者、心之養也，利者、體之養也，體莫貴於心，故養莫重於義，義之養生人大於利。奚以知之？今人大有義而甚無利，雖貧與賤，尚榮其行以自好，而樂生，原憲、曾、閔之屬是也；人甚有利而大無義，雖甚富，則羞辱大，惡惡深，禍患重，非立死其罪者，即旋傷殃憂爾，莫能以樂生而終其身，刑戮夭折之民是也。夫人有義者，雖貧能自樂也；而大無義者，雖富莫能自存；吾以此實義之養生人大於利而厚於財也。民不能知，而常反之，皆忘義而殉利，去理而走邪，以賊其身，而禍其家，此非其自為計不忠也，則其知之所不能明也，今握棗與錯金以示嬰兒，嬰兒必取棗而不取金也，握一斤金與千萬之珠以示野人，野人必取金而不取珠也。故物之於人，小者易知也，其於大者難見也，今利之於人小，而義之於人大者，無怪民之皆趨利而不趨義也，固其所闇也，聖人事明義以照耀其所闇，故民不陷。詩云：“示生顯德行。”此之謂也。先王顯德以示民，民樂而歌之以為詩，說而化之以為俗，故不令而自行，不禁而自止，從上之意，不待使之，若自然矣，故曰：聖人天地動、四時化者，非有他也，其見義大，故能動，動故能化，化故能大行，化大行故法不犯，法不犯故刑不用，刑不用則堯舜之功德，此大治之道也，先聖傳授而復也，故孔子曰：“誰能出不由戶，何莫由斯道也！”今不示顯德行，民闇於義不能照，迷於道不能解，固欲大嚴憯以必正之，直殘賊天民，而薄主德耳，其勢不行。仲尼曰：“國有道，雖加刑，無刑也；國無道，雖殺之，不可勝也。”其所謂有道無道者，示之以顯德行與不示爾。

Heaven gives birth to people and gives them righteousness and profit. Profit is used to nourish the body and righteousness is used to nourish the heart. If the heart does not obtain righteousness, it cannot be joyful; if the body does not obtain profit, it cannot be at ease. Righteousness is the nourishment of the heart, and profit is the nourishment of the body. Nothing in the body is more precious than the heart, so no nourishment is more important than righteousness. Righteousness nourishes human life more than profit does. How do we know? Now there are people with great righteousness and very little profit; even in poverty and lowliness they still take pride in their conduct, are pleased with themselves, and delight in living, as with Yuan Xian, Zengzi and Min Zi; and there are people with great profit and very little righteousness, who even when very rich suffer great disgrace, are deeply hated for their evil, and have heavy calamities: they either die at once for their crimes, or are soon injured by misfortune and worry, and none lives out his life happily; those who suffer punishment and execution and die young are such people. A person who has righteousness can be happy by himself even in poverty; one who has no righteousness at all cannot keep himself alive even in wealth. I use this to prove that righteousness nourishes human life more than profit does, and is thicker than wealth. The people cannot know this and constantly do the opposite, forgetting righteousness and dying for profit, leaving principle and going toward evil, to the ruin of their own persons and the disaster of other families. This is either that his planning for himself is not loyal, or that what he knows cannot make it clear. Now hold a date and inlaid gold in your hand and show them to an infant, and the infant will surely take the date and not the gold; hold a catty of gold and a pearl worth ten million to a rustic, and he will surely take the gold and not the pearl. So with things, the small are easy for people to know and the large are hard to see. Now profit is small to people and righteousness is large to people, so it is no wonder the people go toward profit and not toward righteousness; it is just where they are in the dark. The sages devoted themselves to making righteousness clear in order to light up where people are dark, so the people did not fall. The Book of Odes says: "Show people your bright virtue." (The base text reads 'show birth bright virtue', where 'birth' is suspected to be a mistake for 'me'.) This is what is meant. The former kings displayed virtue to instruct the people, and the people were glad and sang it into poems, and were pleased and transformed it into custom, so without orders they acted by themselves, without prohibitions they stopped by themselves, following the intentions of those above without waiting to be commanded, as if naturally. So it is said: the sage can move Heaven and Earth and transform the four seasons, by nothing else but that he sees that righteousness is great, so he can move; because he can move, he can transform; because he can transform, he can act on a great scale; because teaching and transformation are greatly practiced, the law is not violated; because the law is not violated, punishments are not used; and punishments not being used is the merit and virtue of Yao and Shun. This is the Way of great order, passed on and restored by the earlier sages. So Confucius said: "Who can go out without passing through the door? Why does no one follow this Way!" Now, if one does not display bright virtue to people, the people are dark in righteousness and cannot be lit up, are lost in the Way and cannot be untangled, and one then wishes to rectify them by great severity and cruelty; that only ruins the people of Heaven and thins the ruler's virtue, and the circumstances will not allow it. Zhongni said: "When the state has the Way, even if punishment is applied it is as if there were no punishment; when the state lacks the Way, even if people are killed, they cannot all be killed." What he calls having and lacking the Way is simply displaying and not displaying bright virtue to people.

命令相曰：“大夫蠡、大夫種、大夫庸、大夫睪、大夫車成、越王與此五大夫謀伐吳，遂滅之，雪會稽之恥，卒為霸主，范蠡去之，種死之。寡人以此二大夫者為皆賢。孔子曰：‘殷有三仁。’今以越王之賢，與蠡種之能，此三人者，寡人亦以為越有三仁，其於君何如？桓公決疑於管仲，寡人決疑於君。”仲舒伏地再拜，對曰：“仲舒智褊而學淺，不足以決之，雖然，王有問於臣，臣不敢不悉以對，禮也。臣仲舒聞：昔者，魯君問於柳下惠曰：‘我欲攻齊，何如？’柳下惠對曰：‘不可。’退而有憂色，曰：‘吾聞之也：謀伐國者，不問於仁人也，此何為至於我？’但見問而尚羞之，而況乃與為軸以伐吳乎！其不宜明矣。以此觀之，越本無一仁，而安得三仁！仁人者，正其道不謀其利，修其理不急其功，致無為而習俗大化，可謂仁聖矣，三王是也；春秋之義，貴信而賤軸，軸人而勝之，雖有功，君子弗為也，是以仲尼之門，五尺童子言羞稱五伯，為其軸以成功，苟為而已也，故不足稱於大君子之門，五伯者比於他諸侯為賢者，比於仁賢，何賢之有？譬猶?比於美玉也。臣仲舒伏地再拜以聞。”

(The King) issued a command to the chief minister: "The grand master Li, the grand master Zhong, the grand master Yong, the grand master Gao and the grand master Checheng: the King of Yue planned with these five grand masters to attack Wu, and so destroyed Wu, washed away the shame of Kuaiji, and in the end became hegemon. Fan Li left and Wen Zhong died. I consider both these grand masters worthy. Confucius said: 'Yin had three humane men.' Now, by the worthiness of the King of Yue and the talents of Li and Zhong, these three men: I too consider that Yue had three humane men. What do you say, my lord? Duke Huan took his doubts to Guan Zhong for decision; I take my doubts to you for decision." Dong Zhongshu bowed twice with his face to the ground and answered: "Zhongshu's knowledge is narrow and his learning shallow, not enough to make a decision. Even so, when the King asks his servant, the servant dares not fail to answer completely; this is ritual. I, Zhongshu, have heard: formerly the ruler of Lu asked Liuxia Hui: 'I wish to attack Qi; what do you think?' Liuxia Hui answered: 'It cannot be done.' He withdrew with a worried look and said: 'I have heard that those who plan to attack a state do not ask humane men; why was this matter asked of me?' He was ashamed just to be asked, to say nothing of actually taking part in attacking Wu by deception (the base text has a wrong character in place of 'deception')! That it was not fitting is clear. From this we see that Yue originally had not a single humane man, so how could it have three! A humane man rectifies his Way and does not scheme for profit, clarifies his principle and is not hasty for merit, reaches non-action and customs are greatly transformed, and he can be called a humane sage, as the Three Kings were. The meaning of the Spring and Autumn Annals values trust and despises deceit; to win by treating others with deceit, even if there is merit, the gentleman does not do it. For this reason, at Zhongni's gate, even a five-foot boy is ashamed to speak of the Five Hegemons, because they succeeded by deceit and acted only by shortcuts, so they are not worth being mentioned at the gate of a great gentleman. The Five Hegemons are worthy compared with the other lords, but compared with the humane and worthy, what worth do they have? It is like [two characters lost in transcription of the base text, rare characters] compared with fine jade. I, Zhongshu, bow twice and report this."

天地者，萬物之本、先祖之所出也，廣大無極，其德昭明，歷年眾多，永永無疆。天出至明，眾知類也，其伏無不照也；地出至晦，星日為明不敢闇，君臣、父子、夫婦之道取之此。大禮之終也，臣子三年不敢當，雖當之，必稱先君，必稱先人，不敢貪至尊也。百禮之貴，皆編於月，月編於時，時編於君，君編於天，天之所棄，天下弗佑，桀紂是也；天子之所誅絕，臣子弗得立，蔡世子、逢醜父是也；王父父所絕，子孫不得屬，魯莊公之不得念母、衛輒之辭父命是也；故受命而海內順之，猶眾星之共北辰，流水之宗滄海也，況生天地之間，法太祖先人之容貌，則其至德，取象眾名尊貴，是以聖人為貴也。泰伯至德之侔天地也，上帝為之廢適易姓而子之讓，其至德海內懷歸之，泰伯三讓而不敢就位，伯邑考知群心貳，自引而瞠，順神明也。至德以受命，豪英高明之人輻輳歸之，高者列為公侯，下至卿大夫，濟濟乎哉！皆以德序。是故吳魯同姓也，鍾離之會，不得序而稱君，殊魯而會之，為其夷狄之行也；雞父之戰，吳不得與中國為禮；至於伯莒黃池之行，變而反道，乃爵而不殊；召陵之會，魯君在是，而不得為主，避齊桓也；魯桓即位十三年，齊、宋、衛、燕舉師而東，紀、鄭與魯戮力而報之，後其日，以魯不得遍，避紀侯與鄭厲公也。春秋常辭，夷狄不得與中國為禮，至邲之戰，夷狄反道，中國不得與夷狄為禮，避楚莊也；邢、衛、魯之同姓也，狄人滅之，春秋為諱，避齊桓也，當其如此也，惟德是親，其皆先其親。是故周之子孫，其親等也，而文王最先；四時等也，而春最先；十二月等也，而正月最先；德等也，則先親親；魯十二公等也，而定、哀最尊。衛俱諸夏也，善稻之會，獨先內之，為其與我同姓也；吳俱夷狄也，柤之會，獨先外之，為其與我同姓也；滅國十五有餘，獨先諸夏；

Heaven and Earth are the root of the myriad things and the place from which the ancestors came; vast and without limit, their virtue shines, and the years they have passed through are many, with no end ever. Heaven sends forth the utmost brightness, and all things know to follow their kind, and nothing hidden in them is not illuminated; Earth sends forth the utmost darkness, and so the stars and the sun are bright and dare not be dim. The ways of ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife take their model from this. When the great rites are concluded, the ministers and sons for three years dare not take the position; even if they do, they must say the former ruler, must say the former person, and dare not greedily occupy the highest honor. The honor of the hundred rites is all arranged under the moon, the moon under the seasons, the seasons under the ruler, and the ruler under Heaven. What Heaven abandons, the world does not protect, as with Jie and Zhou; what the Son of Heaven cuts off, ministers and sons may not be set up, as with the heir of Cai and Feng Choufu; what the royal grandfather or father cuts off, descendants may not be attached to, as with Duke Zhuang of Lu not being allowed to think of his mother and Zhe of Wei declining his father's command. So one who receives Heaven's mandate is followed by all within the seas, like the many stars circling the pole star and flowing waters returning to the sea. How much more so for one born between Heaven and Earth who takes the appearance of the Grand Ancestor and forebears as his model, whose supreme virtue takes its image from the honor of the many names; for this reason the sage is honored. Taibo's supreme virtue matched Heaven and Earth, and the Lord on High for this set aside the heir, changed the surname and commended his yielding; his supreme virtue made all within the seas yearn to return, and Taibo yielded three times and dared not take the position. Bo Yikao knew the hearts of the multitude were divided, so he withdrew himself and opened his eyes to avoid it from afar, which was following the spirits. By supreme virtue one receives Heaven's mandate, and heroes and the highly enlightened gather around him like spokes toward the hub; the high are placed as dukes and marquises, and downward to ministers and grand masters, how numerous they are! All are ranked by virtue. So Wu and Lu shared a surname, but at the meeting at Zhongli, Wu was not allowed to be called ruler in order and was distinguished from Lu in the meeting, because it had the conduct of barbarians; at the battle of Jifu, Wu could not perform rites with the central states; only at the campaigns of Boju and Huangchi, having changed and returned to the Way, was it given a rank and no longer distinguished. At the meeting at Zhaoling the ruler of Lu was present but could not be host, in order to avoid Duke Huan of Qi; in the thirteenth year of Duke Huan of Lu, Qi, Song, Wei and Yan raised troops to the east, while Ji and Zheng joined Lu in retaliation, and the date was written later, because Lu could not be counted as generally taking part, in order to avoid the Marquis of Ji and Duke Li of Zheng. The regular wording of the Spring and Autumn Annals is that barbarians cannot perform rites with the central states; but at the battle of Bi, the barbarians returned to the Way, and the central states could not perform rites with the barbarians, in order to avoid King Zhuang of Chu. Xing and Wei shared a surname with Lu, and the Di destroyed them, and the Spring and Autumn Annals avoided mention for this, to avoid Duke Huan of Qi. At such times one is close only to those with virtue, and all are close first to those one should be close to. Thus among the descendants of Zhou, with equal degrees of kinship, King Wen comes first; with the four seasons equal, spring comes first; with the twelve months equal, the first month comes first; with virtue equal, one is close first to one's own kin; with the twelve dukes of Lu equal, Duke Ding and Duke Ai are the most honored. Wei was entirely a central state, yet at the meeting at Shandao it alone was first counted as inner, because it shared my surname; Wu was entirely barbarian, yet at the meeting at Zha it alone was first counted as outer, because it shared my surname. In destroying more than fifteen states, only the central states are written first;

魯、晉俱諸夏也，譏二名獨先及之；盛伯、郜子俱當絕，而獨不名，為其與我同姓兄弟也；外出者眾，以母弟出，獨大惡之，為其亡母背骨肉也；滅人者莫絕，衛侯毀滅同姓獨絕，賤其本祖而忘先也。親等，從近者始；立適以長，母以子貴先。甲戌己丑陳侯鮑卒，書所見也，而不言其闇者；隕石於宋五，六鷁退飛，耳聞而記，目見而書，或徐或察，皆以其先接於我者序之，其於會朝聘之禮亦猶是。諸侯與盟者眾矣，而儀父獨漸進，鄭僖公方來會我，而道殺，春秋致其意，謂之如會；潞子離狄而歸黨，以得亡，春秋謂之子，以領其意；包來、首戴、洮、踐土與操之會：陳、鄭去我，謂之逃歸；鄭處而不來，謂之乞盟：陳侯後至，謂之如會；莒人疑我，貶而稱人；諸侯朝魯者眾矣，而滕、薛獨稱侯；州公化我，奪爵而無號；吳楚國先聘我者見賢，曲棘與鞍之戰，先憂我者見尊。

(The text continued:) Lu and Jin were both central states, and in criticizing the two names, only they alone are reached first; the Lord of Sheng and the Viscount of Gao should both have been cut off, yet only they are not called by name, because they and I are brothers of the same surname. Many of those who went out, but those who went out on account of a full brother are especially hated, because he lost his mother and abandoned his flesh and blood. Those who destroy others were not cut off, but the Marquis of Wei, Hui, who destroyed a state of the same surname, alone was cut off, for despising his root ancestor and forgetting the forebears. The grades of kinship begin from the near; in establishing the heir, by seniority, and the mother who is honored through her son comes first. In jiaxu and jichou, Bao, Marquis of Chen, died, the record writes what is seen and does not speak of what is obscure; five stones fell in Song, six fish-hawks flew backward, and the ear hears and it is recorded, the eye sees and it is written, whether slowly or carefully, all are ordered by what first touches me. The rites of meeting, court and visit are the same. When lords taking part in covenants were many, Yifu alone was gradually advanced. Duke Xi of Zheng was just about to meet me but was killed on the road, and the Spring and Autumn Annals fulfilled his intention, saying he "went to the meeting." The Viscount of Lu left the Di and turned to the central states and was destroyed for it, and the Spring and Autumn Annals called him "viscount" in order to honor his intention. At the meetings of Baolai, Shoudai, Tao, Jiantu and Cao: Chen and Zheng left me, which is called "fled back"; Zheng stayed there and did not come, which is called "begged for a covenant"; the Marquis of Chen arrived late, which is called "went to the meeting"; the men of Ju doubted me and were demoted and called "the men of." When lords at court in Lu were many, Teng and Xue alone are called marquis; the Lord of Zhou was inconstant toward me, so his rank was taken away and he had no title; the states of Wu and Chu that first paid visits to me were regarded as worthy, and those who first worried for me at the battles of Quji and An were regarded as honored.

禮者，繼天地、體陰陽，而慎主客、序尊卑、貴賤、大小之位，而差外內、遠近、新故之級者也，以德多為象，萬物以廣博眾多歷年久者為象。其在天而象天者，莫大日月，繼天地之光明莫不照也；星莫大於大辰，北斗常星，部星三百，衛星三千，大火二十六星，伐十三星，北斗七星，常星九辭，二十八宿，多者宿二十八九，其猶蓍百莖而共一本，龜千歲而人寶，是以三代傳決疑焉。其得地體者，莫如山阜，人之得天得眾者，莫如受命之天子，下至公侯伯子男，海內之心，懸於天子，疆內之民，統於諸侯，日月食並告兇，不以其行。有星茀於東方，於大辰，入北斗，常星不見，地震，梁山、沙鹿崩，宋、衛、陳、鄭災，王公大夫篡弒者，春秋皆書以為大異，不言眾星之茀入霣雨，原隰之襲崩，一國之小民死亡，不決疑於眾草木也。唯田邑之稱，多著主名；君將不言臣；臣不言師；王夷君獲，不言師敗。孔子曰：“唯天為大，唯堯則之。”則之者，大也。“巍巍乎其有成功也”，言其尊大以成功也。齊桓、晉文不尊周室，不能霸，三代聖人不則天地，不能至王，階此而觀之，可以知天地之貴矣。夫流深者，其水不測，尊至者，其敬無窮，是故天之所加，雖為災害，猶承而大之，其欽無窮，震夷伯之廟是也。天無錯舛之災，地有震動之異，天子所誅絕，所敗師，雖不中道，而春秋者不敢闕，謹之也，故師出者眾矣，莫言還，至師及齊師圍成，成降於齊師，獨言還，其君劫外，不得已，故可直言也，至於他師，皆其君之過也，而曰非師之罪，是臣子不為君父受罪，罪不臣子莫大焉。夫至明者，其照無疆，至晦者，其闇無疆；今春秋緣魯以言王義，殺隱、桓以為遠祖，宗定、哀以為考妣，至尊且高，至顯且明，其基壤之所加，潤澤之所被，條條無疆。前是常數十年，鄰之幽人近其墓而高明。

Ritual continues Heaven and Earth, embodies yin and yang, carefully orders host and guest, ranks the positions of honored and lowly, noble and base, great and small, and grades the steps of outer and inner, far and near, new and old. It takes as its image what has much virtue, and the myriad things take as their image what is broad and numerous and has passed through many years. In Heaven, taking its image from Heaven, nothing is greater than the sun and moon, continuing the brightness of Heaven and Earth, and nothing is not illuminated. Among stars, nothing is greater than the Great Star: the Big Dipper and fixed stars, the three hundred regional stars, the three thousand guard stars, the twenty-six stars of the Great Fire, the thirteen stars of Fa, the seven stars of the Big Dipper, the nine words of the fixed stars, the twenty-eight lodges, with the more numerous lodges numbering twenty-eight or twenty-nine, like the hundred stalks of the yarrow with one root, and the tortoise that lives a thousand years and is treasured by people, and so the Three Dynasties handed them down to decide doubts. Among things that take the substance of Earth, none exceeds mountains and mounds. Among people who obtain Heaven and obtain the multitude, none exceeds the Son of Heaven who has received the mandate. Downward to dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts and barons, the hearts within the seas are tied to the Son of Heaven, and the people within the borders belong to the lords. Solar and lunar eclipses are reported as ill omens together, and not examined by their movements. When a star appeared in the east, in the Great Star, and entered the Big Dipper, when fixed stars were not seen, when there were earthquakes, when Mount Liang and Shalu collapsed, when there were fires in Song, Wei, Chen and Zheng, and when kings, dukes and grand masters usurped or murdered, the Spring and Autumn Annals records all of these as great anomalies; it does not speak of the entering of many stars, the falling of rain, the collapse of plains and marshes, or the deaths of the small people of one state, and does not consult the many plants and trees to decide doubts. Only for names of fields and towns does it often write the name of the lord; when the ruler himself leads troops it does not say the minister; when a minister leads it does not say the army; when a king is wounded or a ruler captured, it does not say the army was defeated. Confucius said: "Only Heaven is great, and only Yao took it as his model." To take it as a model is to be great. "How lofty is his achievement" means that his honor and greatness bring success. Without honoring the Zhou house, Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin could not have become hegemons; without taking Heaven and Earth as their model, the sages of the Three Dynasties could not have become kings. From this one can know the nobility of Heaven and Earth. Where water flows deep, its water cannot be fathomed; for what is honored to the extreme, reverence for it has no end. For this reason, what Heaven inflicts, even when it is disaster, one still receives and honors it, with reverence without end, as with the shaking of the temple of Yibo. Heaven has no calamity that is disordered, but Earth has anomalies of shaking. When the Son of Heaven cuts off or defeats an army, even if it is not in accord with the Way, the Spring and Autumn Annals does not dare to omit it, out of caution. So when armies went out many times, there was no mention of armies returning; but in "the army joined the army of Qi to besiege Cheng, and Cheng surrendered to the army of Qi," it alone says returned, because his ruler was coerced from outside and had no alternative, so one can say it directly. As for other armies, they are the fault of their rulers, yet it is said not to be the fault of the army; this means that ministers and sons do not take the blame for ruler and father, and there is no greater crime than failing to be a minister and a son. What is brightest has no boundary to its shining; what is darkest has no boundary to its dimness. Now the Spring and Autumn Annals borrows Lu to speak of the meaning of a true king, treating Duke Yin and Duke Huan as distant ancestors to be reduced and Duke Ding and Duke Ai as deceased father and mother to be honored, most honored and lofty, most manifest and bright; where its foundation reaches and its moisture covers, each line has no boundary. Before this it was often decades; those in the dim lands of neighboring states approached the tomb and became enlightened.

大國齊、宋，離不言會，微國之君，卒葬之禮，錄而辭繁；遠夷之君，內而不外。當此之時，魯無鄙強，諸侯之伐哀者皆言我，邾婁庶其、鼻我、邾婁大夫，其於我無以親，以近之故，乃得顯明；隱、桓、親春秋之先人也，益師卒而不日；於稷之會，言其成宋亂，以遠外也；黃池之會，以兩伯之辭，言不以為外，以近內也。

Of the great states Qi and Song, when they separated it does not say "met." For rulers of small states, the rites of death and burial are recorded and the wording is elaborate; rulers of the far barbarians are counted as inner and not as outer. At that time Lu had no strong enemy on its borders, and when lords attacked Duke Ai it always said "us." Shuqi and Bi Wo of Zhulou were grand masters of Zhulou, and had no kinship with me, but because they were near they came to be made manifest. Duke Yin and Duke Huan were the forebears whom the Spring and Autumn Annals holds close, yet the death of Yishi is not recorded by day. At the meeting at Ji, it says he completed the disorder of Song, because he was far and outside; at the meeting at Huangchi, with the wording of two hegemons, it says he is not treated as outside, because he was near and within.

治天下之端，在審辨大；辨大之端，在深察名號。名者，大理之首章也，錄其首章之意，以窺其中之事，則是非可知，逆順自著，其幾通於天地矣。是非之正，取之逆順；逆順之正，取之名號；名號之正，取之天地；天地為名號之大義也。古之聖人，謞而效天地，謂之號，鳴而施命，謂之名。名之為言鳴與命也，號之為言謞而效也，謞而效天地者為號，鳴而命者為名，名號異聲而同本，皆鳴號而達天意者也。天不言，使人發其意；弗為，使人行其中；名則聖人所發天意，不可不深觀也。受命之君，天意之所予也。故號為天子者，宣視天為父，事天以孝道也；號為諸侯者，宜謹視所候奉之天子也；號為大夫者，宜厚其忠信，敦其禮義，使善大於匹夫之義，足以化也；士者，事也，民者、瞑也；士不及化，可使守事從上而已。五號自贊，各有分，分中委曲，曲有名，名眾於號，號其大全。名也者，名其別離分散也，號凡而略，名詳而目，目者，遍辨其事也，凡者，獨舉其大也。享鬼神者號一，曰祭；祭之散名：春曰祠，夏曰礿，秋曰嘗，冬曰烝。獵禽獸者號一，曰田；田之散名：春苗、秋搜，冬狩，夏獼；無有不皆中天意者。物莫不有凡號，號莫不有散名如是。是故事各順於名，名各順於天，天人之際，合而為一。同而通理，動而相益，順而相受，謂之德道。詩曰：“維號斯言，有倫有跡。”此之謂也。

The beginning of governing the world lies in examining and distinguishing the great points; the beginning of distinguishing the great points lies in deeply examining names and titles. Names are the first chapter of the great principle. Recording the meaning of the first chapter in order to look into the affairs within it, right and wrong can be known, accord and opposition show themselves, and its subtle workings penetrate Heaven and Earth. The correctness of right and wrong is taken from accord and opposition; the correctness of accord and opposition is taken from names and titles; the correctness of names and titles is taken from Heaven and Earth. Heaven and Earth are the great meaning of names and titles. The ancient sages called out loudly and modeled themselves on Heaven and Earth, which is called a title (hao); sounding a voice and issuing a command is called a name (ming). The word name speaks of calling out (ming) and command (ming), and the word title speaks of calling aloud and modeling. Calling aloud and modeling on Heaven and Earth is the title; sounding a voice and naming is the name. Name and title differ in sound but are the same in root; both are calls that penetrate Heaven's intent. Heaven does not speak, but lets humans express its intent; Heaven does not act in person, but lets humans carry it out within. Names are just the intent of Heaven expressed by the sages, and one cannot but observe them deeply. A ruler who has received the mandate is one whom Heaven's intent has given it to. So one titled Son of Heaven should regard Heaven as his father and serve Heaven with filial piety; one titled lord should be careful toward the Son of Heaven whom he looks to and serves; one titled grand master should increase his loyalty and trustworthiness and deepen his ritual and righteousness, making his goodness greater than the righteousness of a commoner, enough to teach and transform; an officer (shi) is one who serves (shi); the people (min) are the blind (ming, with eyes closed and not yet awake). The officer is not yet enough to teach others and can only be made to keep his tasks and obey those above. The five titles are each spoken of separately, each with its duty; the details within the duties each have names. Names are more than titles, and titles are the great whole. A name is what is given to things that are separate and scattered. A title is comprehensive and brief, a name is detailed and itemized. Itemizing is to distinguish those things generally; being comprehensive is to raise the great point alone. The title for offering sacrifice to spirits is one, called ji (sacrifice); the scattered names of sacrifice: spring is ci, summer yue, autumn chang, winter zheng. The title for hunting birds and beasts is one, called tian; the scattered names of tian: spring miao, autumn sou, winter shou, summer mi. None fails to accord with Heaven's intent. Things always have a general title, and titles always have scattered names, like this. So affairs each follow their names, names each follow Heaven, and the meeting of Heaven and humankind unites as one. Being alike and their principle connected, acting and mutually increasing, following and mutually giving and receiving, is called the virtue of the Way. The Minor Odes, "Zhengyue," says: "The title is spoken, with order and sequence." This is what is meant.

深察王號的大意，其中有五科：皇科、方科、匡科、黃科、往科；合此五科以一言，謂之王。王者，皇也，王者，方也，王者，匡也，王者，黃也，王者，往也。是故王意不普大而皇，則道不能正直而方；道不能正直而方，則德不能匡鉉周遍；德不能匡鉉周遍，則美不能黃；美不能黃，則四方不能往；四方不能往，則不全於王。故曰：天覆無外，地載兼愛，風行令而一其威，雨布施而均其德，王術之謂也。

Deeply examining the great meaning of the title "king" (wang), there are five categories within it: the august category (huang), the square category (fang), the rectifying category (kuang), the yellow category (huang), and the going-to category (wang). Combining these five categories into one phrase is called king. The king is august; the king is square; the king is rectifying; the king is yellow; the king is the one to whom people go. Therefore if the king's intent is not universal, broad and august, then his Way cannot be upright and square; if his Way cannot be upright and square, his virtue cannot rectify and pervade; if his virtue cannot rectify and pervade, his excellence cannot be yellow; if his excellence cannot be yellow, the four quarters cannot turn toward and go to him; and if the four quarters cannot go to him, there is something incomplete in the king. So it is said: Heaven covers with no outside, Earth bears and loves all, wind carries out commands and unifies their awe, and rain bestows and equalizes its virtue; this refers to the art of a king.

深察君號之大意，其中亦有五科：元科，原科，權科，溫科，群科：合此五科以一言，謂之君。君者，元也，君者，原也，君者，權也，君者，溫也，君者，群也。是故君意不比於元，則動而失本；動而失本，則所為不立；所為不立，則不效於原；不效於原，則自委舍；自委舍，則化不行；用權於變，則失中適之宜；失中適之宜，則道不平、德不溫；道不平、德不溫，則眾不親安；眾不親安，則離散不群；離散不群，則不全於君。

Deeply examining the great meaning of the title "ruler" (jun), there are also five categories within it: the primal category (yuan), the source category (yuan), the weighing category (quan), the warm category (wen), and the grouping category (qun). Combining these five categories into one phrase is called ruler. The ruler is the primal; the ruler is the source; the ruler is the weighing; the ruler is the warm; the ruler is the group. Therefore if the ruler's intent is not attached to the primal, then at one move he loses the root; if at one move he loses the root, what he does cannot stand; if what he does cannot stand, he does not model himself on the source; if he does not model himself on the source, he abandons himself; and if he abandons himself, teaching and transformation cannot be carried out. If weighing is used in changes, he loses what is fitting to the middle; if he loses what is fitting to the middle, the Way is not level and virtue is not warm; if the Way is not level and virtue is not warm, the people are neither close nor at ease; if the people are neither close nor at ease, they scatter and do not form a group; and if they scatter and do not form a group, there is something incomplete in the ruler.

名生於真，非其真弗以為名。名者，聖人之所以真物也，名之為言真也。故凡百譏有黮黮者，各反其真，則黮黮者還昭昭耳。欲審曲直，莫如引繩；欲審是非，莫如引名；名之審於是非也，猶繩之審於曲直也。詰其名實，觀其離合，則是非之情不可以相讕已。今世闇於性，言之者不同，胡不試反性之名？性之名，非生與？如其生之自然之資，謂之性。性者，質也，詰性之質於善之名，能中之與？既不能中矣，而尚謂之質善，何哉？性之名不得離質，離質如毛，則非性已，不可不察也。春秋辨物之理，以正其名，名物如其真，不失秋毫之末，故名霣石，則後其五，言退鷁，則先其六。聖人之謹於正名如此，君子於其言，無所苟而已，五石六鷁之辭是也。●眾惡於內，弗使得發於外者，心也，故心之為名，●也。人之受氣苟無惡者，心何●哉？吾以心之名得人之誠，人之誠有貪有仁，仁貪之氣兩在於身。身之名取諸天，天兩，有陰陽之施，身亦兩，有貪仁之性；天有陰陽禁，身有情慾●，與天道一也。是以陰之行不得幹春夏，而月之魄常厭於日光，占全占傷。天之禁陰如此，安得不損其欲而輟其情以應天？天所禁，而身禁之，故曰身猶天也，禁天所禁，非禁天也。必知天性不乘於教，終不能●。察實以為名，無教之時，性何遽若是？故性比於禾，善比於米；米出禾中，而禾未可全為米也；善出性中，而性未可全為善也。善與米，人之所繼天而成於外，非在天所為之內也。天之所為，有所至而止，止之內謂之天性，止之外謂人事，事在性外，而性不得不成德。民之號，取之瞑也，使性而已善，則何故以瞑為號？以霣者言，弗扶將，則顛陷猖狂，安能善。性有似目，目臥幽而瞑，待覺而後見，當其未覺，可謂有見質，而不可謂見。今萬民之性，有其質而未能覺，譬如瞑者待覺，教之然後善。

Names arise from the real, and what is not real is not made a name. A name is what the sages use to make things real, and the word name speaks of the real. So in the hundred kinds of criticism, whatever is obscure, each returns to its reality, and what is obscure also returns to brightness. To examine crooked and straight, nothing is better than drawing a cord; to examine right and wrong, nothing is better than drawing a name. Names examine right and wrong as the cord examines crooked and straight. Questioning name and reality, and observing their separation and union, the facts of right and wrong cannot slander each other. Now the world is dark about nature and those who discuss it all differ; why not try returning to the name "nature"? Is the name nature not simply life? The natural disposition that one has on being born is called nature. Nature is substance. If one questions the substance of nature with the name "good," can it be matched? Since it cannot be matched, why still say the substance is good? The name nature cannot be separated from substance; separating from substance is like separating from fur, and then it is not nature, and one must examine it. The Spring and Autumn Annals distinguishes the principles of things to rectify their names, naming things as their reality, without losing a hair's tip. So when it says "fallen stones," it puts "five" after; when it says "fish-hawks retreating," it puts "six" first. The sages were this careful in rectifying names. The gentleman is not careless in his own words at all, as in the wording of five stones and six fish-hawks. What keeps the many evils [a character is damaged in the base text] inside and does not let them issue outside is the heart, so the name heart is just [damaged character in the base text]. If people received qi with no evil originally, why must the heart be [damaged character]? By the name heart I obtain the truth of people. The truth of people has greed and humaneness; both the qi of humaneness and of greed are in the body. The name body is taken from Heaven. Heaven is two-sided, with the bestowal of yin and yang; the body is also two-sided, with the natures of greed and humaneness. Heaven has a prohibition against yin and yang, and the body has a [damaged character] against feelings and desires, the same as the Way of Heaven. For this reason the movement of yin cannot interfere with spring and summer, and the moon's dark body is constantly pressed down by the sun's light, now whole, now injured. Heaven prohibits yin to this degree; how could a person not reduce desires and stop feelings in order to respond to Heaven? What Heaven prohibits, the body also prohibits, so it is said that the body is like Heaven. To prohibit what Heaven prohibits is not to prohibit Heaven. One must know that if heavenly nature does not rely on teaching, in the end it cannot [damaged character]. Looking at the facts to give names: in a time before teaching, how would nature at once be like this? So nature is compared to grain, and goodness to rice. Rice comes out of grain, yet grain cannot be entirely taken as rice; goodness comes out of nature, yet nature cannot be entirely taken as goodness. Goodness and rice are what people complete outside by continuing Heaven, and are not within the scope of what Heaven does. What Heaven does stops where it arrives. What is within the stopping point is called heavenly nature, and what is beyond it is called human affairs. Affairs are outside nature, yet nature cannot but complete virtue. The title "people" (min) is taken from "blind" (ming). If nature were already good, why would blindness be used for the title? Take a person about to fall: if he is not supported, he will fall and stumble wildly; how could he be good? Nature is somewhat like the eyes: when the eyes sleep they are dark and closed, and only after waking can they see; while they have not yet woken, one can say they have the substance of being able to see, but one cannot say they have already seen. Now the nature of the myriad people has that substance but is not yet awake, like a person with eyes closed waiting to wake; only after teaching and transformation is it good.

當其未覺，可謂有善質，而未可謂善，與目之瞑而覺，一概之比也。靜心徐察之，其言可見矣。性而瞑之未覺，天所為也；效天所為，為之起號，故謂之民。民之為言，固猶瞑也，隨其名號，以入其理，則得之矣。是正名號者於天地，天地之所生，謂之性情，性情相與為一瞑，情亦性也，謂性已善，奈其情何？故聖人莫謂性善，累其名也。身之有性情也，若天之有陰陽也，言人之質而無其情，猶言天之陽而無其陰也，窮論者無時受也。名性不以上，不以下，以其中名之。性如繭、如卵，卵待覆而成雛，繭待繅而為絲，性待教而為善，此之謂真天。天生民性有善質而未能善，於是為之立王以善之，此天意也。民受未能善之性於天，而退受成性之教於王，王承天意以成民之性為任者也；今案其真質而謂民性已善者，是失天意而去王任也。萬民之性苟已善，則王者受命尚何任也？其設名不正，故棄重任而違大命，非法言也。春秋之辭，內事之待外者，從外言之。今萬民之性，待外教然後能善，善當與教，不當與性，與性則多累而不精，自成功而無賢聖，此世長者之所誤出也，非春秋為辭之術也。不法之言，無驗之說，君子之所外，何以為哉！或曰：“性有善端，心有善質，尚安非善？”應之曰：“非也。繭有絲，而繭非絲也；卵有雛，而卵非雛也。比類率然，有何疑焉。”天生民有六經，言性者不當異，然其或曰性也善，或曰性未善，則所謂善者，各異意也。性有善端，動之愛父母，善於禽獸，則謂之善，此孟子之善。循三綱五紀，通八端之理，忠信而博愛，敦厚而好禮，乃可謂善，此聖人之善也。是故孔子曰：“善人，吾不得而見之，得見有常者，斯可矣。”由是觀之，聖人之所謂善，未易當也，非善於禽獸則謂之善也，使動其端善於禽獸則可謂之善，善奚為弗見也？

(Continuing:) While it has not yet awakened, it may be said to have the substance of goodness but cannot be said to be already good, which is the same kind of comparison as eyes that are closed and then awaken. If one calms the mind and examines it slowly, the words will become visible. Nature, like something asleep and not yet awake, is made by Heaven; people take what Heaven made as a model and give it a name, so they are called the people (min). The very character min is like "closed eyes" (ming). Following its name and entering its principle, one gets it. This is how names are rectified with Heaven and Earth: what Heaven and Earth give birth to is called nature and feeling. Nature and feeling together are one closing of the eyes, and feeling is also nature. If one says nature is already good, then what is to be done with feeling? So the sages did not say that nature is good, fearing it would burden the name. The body has nature and feeling, just as Heaven has yin and yang. To speak of a person's substance without feeling is like speaking of Heaven's yang without yin; even if the argument is exhausted, there will never be a time it is accepted. In naming nature, one does not go by the highest or the lowest, but names it by the middle. Nature is like a cocoon, like an egg: the egg waits for brooding to become a chick, the cocoon waits for reeling and boiling to become silk, and nature waits for teaching and transformation to become good; this is called true Heaven. Heaven gives birth to the people, whose nature has the substance of goodness but cannot yet be good, so it sets up a king for them to make them good; this is Heaven's intention. The people receive from Heaven a nature not yet able to be good, and then return to receive from the king the teaching that completes their nature. The king receives Heaven's intention and takes completing the people's nature as his responsibility. Now if one follows their real substance but says that the people's nature is already good, one loses Heaven's intention and discards the king's responsibility. If the nature of the ten thousand people were already good, what responsibility would a king bear after receiving the mandate? The name thus established is improper, abandons a heavy duty and defies the great mandate, and is not a lawful statement. In the wording of the Spring and Autumn Annals, an internal matter that waits on the outside is spoken of from the outside. Now the nature of the ten thousand people waits on outside teaching and only then can become good; goodness should be attributed to teaching, not to nature. Attributing it to nature burdens it with much and is not refined, as if one succeeded on one's own without sages and worthies; this is a mistake made by elders of the world, not the way the Annals uses words. Unlawful statements and unverified claims are what the gentleman rejects, so what is there to do with them! Someone says: "Nature has the sprouts of goodness, and the mind has the substance of goodness, so how is it still not good?" The answer is: "No. A cocoon has silk, yet a cocoon is not silk; an egg has a chick, yet an egg is not a chick. All comparisons of this kind are like this, so what is there to doubt?" Heaven gives birth to the people and there are the Six Classics, and what they say of nature should not differ. Yet some say nature is good and some say nature is not yet good, so what they call good differs in meaning. Nature has the sprouts of goodness, and when they stir, loving one's parents is better than the birds and beasts; this is called good, and this is Mencius's goodness. To follow the three bonds and five norms, to penetrate the principles of the eight sprouts, to be loyal and trustworthy and love broadly, to be generous and fond of ritual, can then be called good, and this is the sage's goodness. So Confucius said: "A good man I cannot get to see; to see one who has constancy would be enough." From this it appears that what the sages call good is not easy to bear, and one is not called good merely for being better than the birds and beasts. If one were called good just by stirring those sprouts to be better than birds and beasts, why would goodness be so rarely seen?"

夫善於禽獸之未得為善也，猶知於草木而不得名知，萬民之性善於禽獸而不得名善，知之名乃取之聖。聖人之所命，天下以為正，正朝夕者視北辰，正嫌疑者視聖人，聖人以為無王之世，不教之民，莫能當善，善之難當如此，而謂萬民之性皆能當之，過矣。質於禽獸之性，則萬民之性善矣；質於人道之善，則民性弗及也。萬民之性善於禽獸者許之，聖人之所謂善者弗許，吾質之命性者，異孟子。孟子下質於禽獸之所為，故曰性已善；吾上質於聖人之所為，故謂性未善，善過性，聖人過善。春秋大元，故謹於正名，名非所始，如之何謂未善已善也。

(Continuing:) Being better than birds and beasts still cannot count as good, just as having more awareness than grass and trees cannot be called wisdom. The nature of the ten thousand people is better than birds and beasts but cannot be called good. The name of wisdom is taken from the sages. What the sages name, the world takes as correct. To set right morning and evening one looks to the North Star; to set right doubts one looks to the sages. The sages held that in an age without a king, the people with no teaching or transformation have none able to bear goodness. Goodness is so hard to bear, yet to say that the nature of the ten thousand people can all bear it is excessive. Measured by the nature of birds and beasts, the nature of the ten thousand people is good; measured by the goodness of the human way, the people's nature falls short. That the nature of the ten thousand people is better than birds and beasts I grant; what the sages call good I do not grant it. What I take to correct the naming of nature differs from Mencius. Mencius measured downward by the conduct of birds and beasts, and so said nature is already good; I measure upward by the conduct of the sages, and so say nature is not yet good. Goodness exceeds nature, and the sage exceeds goodness. The Spring and Autumn Annals honors the origin, so it is careful about rectifying names. If the name did not begin from there, how could one say not yet good or already good?

孔子曰：“名不正，則言不順。”今謂性已善，不幾於無教而如其自然，又不順於為政之道矣；且名者性之實，實者性之質，質無教之時，何遽能善。善如米，性如禾，禾雖出米，而禾未可謂米也；性雖出善，而性未可謂善也。米與善，人之繼天而成於外也，非在天所為之內也；天所為，有所至而止，止之內謂之天，止之外謂之王教，王教在性外，而性不得不遂，故曰：性有善質，而未能為善也，豈敢美辭，其實然也。天之所為，止於繭麻與禾，以麻為布，以繭為絲，以米為飯，以性為善，此皆聖人所繼天而進也，非情性質樸之能至也，故不可謂性。正朝夕者視北辰，正嫌疑者視聖人，聖人之所名，天下以為正。今按聖人言中本無性善名，而有善人吾不得見之矣，使萬民之性皆已能善，善人者何為不見也，觀孔子言此之意，以為善甚難當；而孟子以為萬民性皆能當之，過矣。聖人之性，不可以名性，斗筲之性，又不可以名性，名性者，中民之性。中民之性，如繭如卵，卵待覆二十日，而後能為雛；繭待繰以涫湯，而後能為絲；性待漸於教訓，而後能為善；善，教訓之所然也，非質樸之所能至也，故不謂性。性者，宜知名矣，無所待而起生，而所自有也；善所自有，則教訓已非性也。是以米出於粟，而粟不可謂米；玉出於璞，而璞不可謂玉；善出於性，而性不可謂善；其比多在物者為然，在性者以為不然，何不通於類也？卵之性未能作雛也，繭之性未能作絲也，麻之性未能為縷也，粟之性未能為米也。春秋別物之理，以正其名，名物必各因其真，真其義也，真其情也，乃以為名。名霣石，則後其五，退飛，則先其六，此皆其真也。聖人於言，無所苟而已矣。性者，天質之樸也，善者，王教之化也；無其質，則王教不能化，無其王教，則質樸不能善。質而不以善性，其名不正，故不受也。

Confucius said: "If names are not correct, words do not follow." Now to say that nature is already good would almost be to leave things to take their course without teaching or transformation, which again does not accord with the way of governing. Moreover, a name is the reality of nature, and the reality is the substance of nature. When the substance has not been taught, how could it immediately be able to be good? Goodness is like rice, and nature is like the grain plant. Although the plant produces rice, the plant cannot be called rice; although nature produces goodness, nature cannot be called goodness. Rice and goodness are what people, continuing Heaven, complete outwardly, and are not within the range of what Heaven does. What Heaven does stops where it has reached. What lies within the stopping place is called Heaven, and what lies beyond it is called the king's teaching. The king's teaching is outside nature, and nature cannot but follow along. So it is said: nature has the substance of goodness but cannot yet be good. How would one dare use fine words; the reality is simply so. What Heaven does stops at cocoon, hemp and grain. To turn hemp into cloth, cocoons into silk, rice into cooked food, and nature into goodness are all things the sages carry on from Heaven and push forward, not what feeling, nature and plain substance can reach, so they cannot be called nature. To set right morning and evening one looks to the North Star; to set right doubts one looks to the sages. What the sages name, the world takes as correct. Now in the sages' words there originally was no name "nature is good," but there was "a good man I cannot get to see." If the nature of the ten thousand people could all already be good, why could no good man be seen? Looking at the meaning of Confucius's words, he took goodness to be very hard to bear; but Mencius took the nature of the ten thousand people to be able to bear it, which is excessive. The nature of a sage cannot be used to name nature, and the nature of a petty person cannot be used to name nature either. What names nature is the nature of the middling people. The nature of the middling people is like a cocoon, like an egg. An egg waits twenty days of brooding and then can become a chick; a cocoon waits for reeling in boiling water and then can become silk; nature waits for gradual teaching and only then can become good. Goodness is made so by teaching and is not what plain substance can reach, so it is not called nature. As for nature, one should know the name: it rises without waiting for anything, and is what one originally has. If goodness were what one originally has, then teaching would already not be nature. So rice comes from millet but millet cannot be called rice; jade comes from raw stone but raw stone cannot be called jade; goodness comes from nature but nature cannot be called goodness. Comparisons of this kind are accepted as so for things, yet are said not to hold for nature; why do they not extend to the same kind? The nature of an egg cannot yet make a chick, the nature of a cocoon cannot yet make silk, the nature of hemp cannot yet become thread, and the nature of millet cannot yet become rice. The Spring and Autumn Annals distinguishes the principles of things to rectify their names, and in naming things each follows its truth. It makes true their righteousness and true their feeling, and only then uses them as names. It says "meteorites fell" and puts "five" after; "retreated flying" and puts "six" before; these are all their truth. The sages are never careless in the least about words. Nature is the plainness of Heaven's substance; goodness is the transformation of the king's teaching. Without that substance, the king's teaching cannot transform; without that king's teaching, plain substance cannot become good. To have substance and not attribute goodness to nature is because the name would be improper, and so it is not accepted.

生育養長，成而更生，終而復始其事，所以利活民者無已，天雖不言，其欲贍足之意可見也。古之聖人見天意之厚於人也，故南面而君天下，必以兼利之，為其遠者，目不能見，其隱者，耳不能聞，於是千里之外，割地分民，而建國立君，使為天子視所不見，聽所不聞，朝者召而聞之也，諸侯之為言猶諸候也。

Birth, nurture and growth, completion and then renewal, ending and then beginning: this work is for the benefit and sustaining of the people and never stops. Although Heaven does not speak, its wish to provide in full can be seen. The ancient sages saw that Heaven's intention treated people generously, so they faced south and ruled all under Heaven, and must benefit them all. Because what is far the eyes cannot see and what is hidden the ears cannot hear, they divided land and people a thousand li away, established states and set up rulers, to see for the Son of Heaven what he cannot see and to hear what he cannot hear. Those who come to court are summoned to report what they have heard. The term zhuhou (feudal lords) is like "zhu hou," those who keep watch in all places.

河間獻王問溫城董君曰：“孝經曰：‘夫孝，天之經，地之義。’何謂也？”對曰：“天有五行：木、火、土、金、水是也。木生火，火生土，土生金、金生水。水為冬，金為秋，土為季夏，火為夏，木為春。春主生，夏主長，季夏主養，秋主收，冬主藏，藏，冬之所成也。是故父之所生，其子長之；父之所長，其子養之；父之所養，其子成之。諸父所為，其子皆奉承而續行之，不敢不致如父之意，盡為人之道也。故五行者，五行也。由此觀之，父授之，子受之，乃天之道也。故曰：夫孝者，天之經也。此之謂也。”王曰：“善哉！天經既得聞之矣，願聞地之義。”對曰：“地出雲為雨，起氣為風，風雨者，地之所為，地不敢有其功名，必上之於天，命若從天氣者，故曰天風天雨也，莫曰地風地雨也；勤勞在地，名一歸於天，非至有義，其庸能行此；故下事上，如地事天也，可謂大忠矣。土者，火之子也，五行莫貴於土，土之於四時，無所命者，不與火分功名；木名春，火名夏，金名秋，水名冬，忠臣之義，孝子之行取之土；土者，五行最貴者也，其義不可以加矣。五聲莫貴於宮，五味莫美於甘，五色莫盛於黃，此謂孝者地之義也。”王曰：“善哉！”

The King of Hejian asked Master Dong of Wencheng: "The Classic of Filial Piety says: 'Filial piety is the constant norm of Heaven and the right of Earth.' What does it mean?" He answered: "Heaven has the five phases: wood, fire, earth, metal and water. Wood generates fire, fire generates earth, earth generates metal, and metal generates water. Water is winter, metal is autumn, earth is late summer, fire is summer, and wood is spring. Spring governs birth, summer governs growth, late summer governs nurture, autumn governs gathering, and winter governs storing. Storing is what winter completes. So what the father gives birth to, the son grows; what the father grows, the son nurtures; what the father nurtures, the son completes. Whatever the father does, the son respectfully carries on and continues to practice, not daring to fail to do it as the father intended, and this is exhausting the way of being a person. So the five phases are five kinds of conduct. From this it appears that the father gives and the son receives, which is the way of Heaven. So it is said: filial piety is the constant norm of Heaven. This is what that means." The king said: "Good! I have heard the constant norm of Heaven; I would like to hear again the right of Earth." He answered: "Earth sends forth clouds to become rain and raises qi to become wind. Wind and rain are what Earth does, yet Earth does not dare hold the credit and must attribute it upward to Heaven, so the command seems to follow the qi of Heaven, and thus one speaks of Heaven's wind and Heaven's rain, and never of Earth's wind and Earth's rain. The labor lies with Earth, and the name is wholly given to Heaven. Without utmost righteousness, who could practice this? So those below serving those above is like Earth serving Heaven, and can be called great loyalty. Earth is the son of fire. Among the five phases none is more honored than earth. Earth among the four seasons is not given a name and does not share the credit and name with fire. Wood is named spring, fire is named summer, metal is named autumn, and water is named winter. The loyalty of a loyal minister and the conduct of a filial son are taken from earth. Earth is the most honored of the five phases, and its righteousness cannot be added to. Among the five sounds none is more honored than gong, among the five flavors none is sweeter than sweet, and among the five colors none is more splendid than yellow. This is what is called filial piety being the right of Earth." The king said: "Good!"

為生不能為人，為人者，天也，人之人本於天，天亦人之曾祖父也，此人之所以乃上類天也。人之形體，化天數而成；人之血氣，化天志而仁；人之德行，化天理而義；人之好惡，化天之暖清；人之喜怒，化天之寒暑；人之受命，化天之四時；人生有喜怒哀樂之答，春秋冬夏之類也。喜，春之答也，怒，秋之答也，樂，夏之答也，哀，冬之答也，天之副在乎人，人之情性有由天者矣，故曰受，由天之號也。為人主也，道莫明省身之天，如天出之也，使其出也，答天之出四時，而必忠其受也，則堯舜之治無以加，是可生可殺而不可使為亂，故曰：非道不行，非法不言。此之謂也。

Birth alone does not complete a person; what completes a person is Heaven. A person's root lies in Heaven, and Heaven is also a person's great-grandfather, which is the reason people resemble Heaven above. A person's body is formed by transforming Heaven's numbers; a person's blood and qi are formed by transforming Heaven's will into humaneness; a person's virtue is formed by transforming Heaven's principle into righteousness; a person's likes and dislikes transform Heaven's warmth and coolness; a person's joy and anger transform Heaven's cold and heat; a person's receiving of the mandate transforms Heaven's four seasons. The responses of joy, anger, sorrow and delight in human life are of the same kind as spring, summer, autumn and winter. Joy is the response of spring; anger is the response of autumn; delight is the response of summer; sorrow is the response of winter. Heaven's counterpart is in the human being, and the human feelings and nature that come from Heaven are therefore called "received," which is a name that comes from Heaven. For one who is ruler of the people, no way is clearer than to examine the Heaven he has received in himself, as though Heaven issued it forth. Having it issue forth, responding to Heaven's issuing the four seasons, and being surely faithful to what he has received, then Yao and Shun's government cannot be added to. Such a person can be allowed to live or be put to death, but cannot be made to cause disorder. So it is said: if it is not the Way, do not practice it; if it is not the law, do not speak it. This is what that means.

傳曰：唯天子受命於天，天下受命於天子，一國則受命於君。君命順，則民有順命；君命逆，則民有逆命；故曰：一人有慶，兆民賴之。此之謂也。

A tradition says: only the Son of Heaven receives the mandate from Heaven, all under Heaven receives the mandate from the Son of Heaven, and a state receives the mandate from its ruler. If the ruler's mandate is in accord, the people have an accordant mandate; if the ruler's mandate is contrary, the people have a contrary mandate. So it is said: when one man has good fortune, the ten thousand people depend on him. This is what that means.

傳曰：政有三端：父子不親，則致其愛慈；大臣不和，則敬順其禮；百姓不安，則力其孝弟。孝弟者，所以安百姓也，力者，勉行之，身以化之。天地之數，不能獨以寒暑成歲，必有春夏秋冬；聖人之道，不能獨以威勢成政，必有教化。故曰：先之以博愛，教以仁也；難得者，君子不貴，教以義也；雖天子必有尊也，教以孝也；必有先也，教以弟也。此威勢之不足獨恃，而教化之功不大乎！

A tradition says: government has three beginnings. If fathers and sons are not close, devote the utmost love and kindness; if great ministers are not in harmony, respectfully follow ritual; if the common people are not at peace, devote efforts to filial piety and brotherly respect. Filial piety and brotherly respect are what stabilize the common people; effort means striving to practice, transforming through one's own person. The number of Heaven and Earth cannot make one year by cold and heat alone, but must have spring, summer, autumn and winter; the way of the sages cannot make government by authority alone, but must have teaching and transformation. So it is said: first lead with broad love, which teaches humaneness; the gentleman does not value rare goods, which teaches righteousness; even the Son of Heaven must have those he reveres, which teaches filial piety; there must be those who come before oneself, which teaches brotherly respect. This authority is not enough to rely on by itself, and is the work of teaching and transformation not great!

傳曰：天生之，地載之，聖人教之。君者，民之心也，民者，君之體也；心之所好，體必安之；君之所好，民必從之。故君民者，貴孝弟而好禮義，重仁廉而輕財利，躬親職此於上而萬民聽，生善於下矣。故曰：先王見教之可以化民也。此之謂也。

A tradition says: Heaven gives birth to it, Earth carries it, and the sage transforms it. The ruler is the heart of the people, and the people are the ruler's body. What the heart likes, the body is sure to be at ease with; what the ruler likes, the people are sure to follow. So one who rules the people values filial piety and brotherly respect and loves ritual and righteousness, values humaneness and integrity and despises wealth and profit, and personally upholds these above, and the ten thousand people follow, and goodness is born below. So it is said: the former kings saw that teaching can transform the people. This is what that means.

衣服容貌者，所以說目也，聲音應對者，所以說耳也，好惡去就者，所以說心也。故君子衣服中而容貌恭，則目說矣；言理應對遜，則耳說矣；好仁厚而惡淺薄，就善人而遠僻鄙，則心說矣。故曰：行思可樂，容止可觀。此之謂也。

Clothing and appearance please the eyes; sound and replies please the ears; likes, dislikes, going and staying please the heart. So when the gentleman's clothing is moderate and his appearance reverent, the eyes are pleased; when his speech is reasonable and his replies humble, the ears are pleased; when he loves generosity and dislikes shallowness, draws near to good people and keeps far from the crooked and base, the heart is pleased. So it is said: his conduct and thought can make people happy, and his bearing can be looked at. This is what that means.

天有五行：一曰木，二曰火，三曰土，四曰金，五曰水。木，五行之始也，水，五行之終也，土，五行之中也，此其天次之序也。木生火，火生土，土生金，金生水，水生木，此其父子也。木居左，金居右，火居前，水居後，土居中央，此其父子之序，相受而布。是故木受水而火受木，土受火，金受土，水受金也。諸授之者，皆其父也；受之者，皆其子也；常因其父，以使其子，天之道也。是故木已生而火養之，金已死而水藏之，火樂木而養以陽，水克金而喪以陰，土之事火竭其忠。故五行者，乃孝子忠臣之行也。五行之為言也，猶五行歟？是故以得辭也。聖人知之，故多其愛而少嚴，厚養生而謹送終，就天之制也。以子而迎成養，如火之樂木也；喪父，如水之克金也；事君，若土之敬天也；可謂有行人矣。五行之隨，各如其序；五行之官，各致其能。是故木居東方而主春氣，火居南方而主夏氣，金居西方而主秋氣，水居北方而主冬氣；是故木主生而金主殺，火主暑而水主寒，使人必以其序，官人必以其能，天之數也。土居中央，為之天潤，土者，天之股肱也，其德茂美，不可名以一時之事，故五行而四時者，土兼之也，金木水火雖各職，不因土，方不立，若酸鹹辛苦之不因甘肥不能成味也。甘者，五味之本也，土者，五行之主也，五行之主土氣也，猶五味之有甘肥也，不得不成。是故聖人之行，莫貴於忠，土德之謂也。人官之大者，不名所職，相其是矣；天官之大者，不名所生，土是矣。

Heaven has five phases: the first is called wood, the second fire, the third earth, the fourth metal, and the fifth water. Wood is the beginning of the five phases, water is the end of the five phases, and earth is the center of the five phases; this is the order Heaven arranged. Wood generates fire, fire generates earth, earth generates metal, metal generates water, and water generates wood; these are their fathers and sons. Wood lies on the left, metal on the right, fire in front, water behind and earth in the center; this is the order of father and son, mutually giving and receiving in their distribution. So wood receives from water and fire receives from wood, earth receives from fire, metal receives from earth, and water receives from metal. All that give are fathers; all that receive are sons. Constantly relying on the father to direct the son is the way of Heaven. So when wood is born, fire nurtures it; when metal has died, water stores it; fire loves wood and nurtures it with yang, water overcomes metal and sees it off with yin, and earth serves fire with all its loyalty. So the five phases are the conduct of filial sons and loyal ministers. Does the term five phases (wu xing) not sound like five kinds of conduct? So it got this wording. The sages knew this, so they increased their love and reduced their severity, were generous in nurturing the living and careful in seeing off the dead, in order to follow Heaven's order. A son who receives, completes and nurtures is like fire loving wood; a son who mourns his father is like water overcoming metal; one who serves the ruler is like earth revering Heaven; such a person can be called a person of conduct. The followers of the five phases each follow their order, and the offices of the five phases each exhaust their abilities. So wood dwells in the east and governs the qi of spring, fire dwells in the south and governs the qi of summer, metal dwells in the west and governs the qi of autumn, and water dwells in the north and governs the qi of winter. So wood governs birth and metal governs killing, fire governs heat and water governs cold. To make people follow their order and appoint officers according to their ability is the number of Heaven. Earth dwells in the center and is Heaven's moistening. Earth is Heaven's limbs, its virtue is rich and fine, and it cannot be named by a single season's affairs, so the five phases have only four seasons because earth holds them together. Although metal, wood, water and fire each have their duties, without earth their positions cannot be established, just as sour, salty, pungent and bitter without sweet and rich cannot make a flavor. Sweet is the root of the five flavors, and earth is the lord of the five phases. The lord of the five phases is the qi of earth, as the five flavors have sweet and rich, which cannot but complete them. So there is no conduct of a sage more honored than loyalty, which speaks of the virtue of earth. The greatest of the human officials is not given a special name for what it governs, as the chancellor is; the greatest of Heaven's officials is not given a special name for what it generates, as earth is.

天之大數畢於十旬，旬天地之間，十而畢反，旬生長之功，十而畢成，十者，天數之所止也。古之聖人因天數之所止以為數，紀十如更始，民世世傳之，而不知省其所起；知省其所起，則見天數之所始；見天數之所始，則知貴賤逆順所在；知貴賤逆順所在，則天地之情著，聖人之寶出矣。是故陽氣以正月始出於地，生育長養於上，至其功必成也，而積十月；人亦十月而生，合於天數也。是故天道十月而成，人亦十月而成，合於天道也。故陽氣出於東北，入於西北，於發孟春，畢於孟冬，而物莫不應是；陽始出，物亦始出；陽方盛，物亦方盛；陽初衰，物亦初衰；物隨陽而出入，數隨陽而終始；三王之正，隨陽而更起；以此見之，貴陽而賤陰也。故數日者，據晝而不據夜，數歲者，據陽而不據陰，陰不得達之義。是故春秋之於昏禮也，達宋公而不達紀侯之母，紀侯之母宜稱而不達，宋公不宜稱而達，達陽而不達陰，以天道制之也。丈夫雖賤皆為陽，婦人雖貴皆為陰；陰之中亦相為陰，陽之中亦相為陽，諸在上者皆為其下陽，諸在下者皆為其上陰，陰猶沈也，何名何有？皆幷一於陽，昌力而辭功，故出雲起雨，必令從之下，命之曰天雨，不敢有其所出，上善而下惡，惡者受之，善者不受，土若地，義之至也。是故春秋君不名惡，臣不名善，善皆歸於君，惡皆歸於臣。臣之義比於地，故為人臣者，視地之事天也；為人子者，視土之事火也，雖居中央，亦歲七十二日之王，傅於火，以調和養長，然而弗名者，皆幷功於火，火得以盛，不敢與父分功，美孝之至也。是故孝子之行，忠臣之義，皆法於地也，地事天也，猶下之事上也，地，天之合也，物無合會之義。是故推天地之精，鉉陰陽之類，以別順逆之理，安所加以不在？

Heaven's great number is completed in ten. The ten-day period lies between Heaven and Earth, and at ten it is complete and returns; its work of generation and growth is completed and accomplished at ten. Ten is the place where Heaven's number stops. The ancient sages took the place where Heaven's number stops as their number, and counting reaches ten and seems to begin again. The people hand it down generation after generation but do not know to examine from where it arises; if one knows to examine from where it arises, one sees where Heaven's number begins; seeing where Heaven's number begins, one knows where noble and lowly, contrary and compliant lie; knowing where noble and lowly, contrary and compliant lie, the true condition of Heaven and Earth becomes clear and the treasure of the sages comes forth. So yang qi begins in the first month to come out of the earth and generate and grow above, and by the time its work is surely completed it has accumulated ten months; humans are also born in ten months, in accord with Heaven's number. So the way of Heaven completes in ten months and humans complete in ten months, in accord with the way of Heaven. So yang qi comes out from the northeast and enters the northwest, begins from early spring and ends in early winter, and things all respond to this. When yang begins to come out, things also begin to come out; when yang is flourishing, things are flourishing; when yang begins to decline, things begin to decline. Things go in and out with yang, and numbers end and begin with yang. The calendar changes of the Three Kings rise and alternate with yang. From this one sees that yang is honored and yin is lowly. So in counting days one goes by day and not by night; in counting years one goes by yang and not by yin. Yin does not get a principle of reaching through. So in the Spring and Autumn Annals, regarding marriage rites, it conveys the Duke of Song but does not convey the mother of the Marquis of Ji: the mother of the Marquis of Ji should have been mentioned but was not conveyed, and the Duke of Song should not have been mentioned but was conveyed, which means conveying yang and not conveying yin, regulated by the way of Heaven. A husband, even if lowly, is all yang; a wife, even if noble, is all yin. Within yin there are mutual yin, and within yang there are mutual yang. Whatever is above is the yang of those below it; whatever is below is the yin of those above it. Yin is like something lying hidden, so what name and what credit does it have? All of it is attributed to yang, which flourishes through its strength and yields the credit. So when clouds go out and rain rises, it must be made to come from below, and it is named Heaven's rain, not daring to claim what it sent forth. Above good and below evil: evil is received and good is not. Earth is like the ground, the utmost of righteousness. So in the Spring and Autumn Annals the ruler is not called evil and the minister is not called good; all good is attributed to the ruler and all evil to the minister. The minister's righteousness is modeled on earth, so one who is a minister looks at how earth serves Heaven; one who is a son looks at how earth serves fire. Although earth dwells in the center, it also acts as king for seventy-two days of the year, attached to fire to harmonize growth and nurture, yet it is not given a special name, and all the credit is given to fire, so fire becomes flourishing and does not dare share the credit with its father; this is the utmost of fine filial piety. So the conduct of the filial son and the righteousness of the loyal minister are all modeled on earth. Earth serves Heaven as those below serve those above. Earth is Heaven's counterpart, and things have no principle of union. So to seek the essence of Heaven and Earth and unify the kinds of yin and yang to distinguish the principle of contrary and compliant, what could be added that is not already in it?

在上下，在大小，在強弱，在賢不肖，在善惡，惡之屬盡為陰，善之屬盡為陽，陽為德，陰為刑，刑反德而順於德，亦權之類也，雖曰權，皆在權成。是故陽行於順，陰行於逆；逆行而順，順行而逆者，陰也。是故天以陰為權，以陽為經；陽出而南，陰出而北；經用於盛，權用於末；以此見天之顯經隱權，前德而後刑也。故曰：陽，天之德，陰，天之刑也，陽氣暖而陰氣寒，陽氣予而陰氣奪，陽氣仁而陰氣戾，陽氣寬而陰氣急，陽氣愛而陰氣惡，陽氣生而陰氣殺。是故陽常居實位而行於盛，陰常居空位而行於末，天之好仁而近，惡戾之變而遠，大德而小刑之意也，先經而後權，貴陽而賤陰也。故陰，夏入居下，不得任歲事，冬出居上，置之空處也；養長之時伏於下，遠去之，弗使得為陽也；無事之時，起之空處，使之備次陳守閉塞也；此皆天之近陽而遠陰，大德而小刑也。是故人主近天之所近，遠天之所遠，大天之所大，小天之所小。是故天數右陽而不右陰，務德而不務刑；刑之不可任以成世也，猶陰之不可任以成歲也；為政而任刑，謂之逆天，非王道也。

(Continuing:) It lies in above and below, in large and small, in strong and weak, in worthy and unworthy, in good and evil. The class of evil is all yin, and the class of good is all yang. Yang is virtue and yin is punishment. Punishment goes against virtue yet follows virtue, and is also a kind of expediency; even when called expediency, it is all completed in expediency. So yang moves in accord and yin moves in opposition; that which moves in accord though going against, and moves against though going along, is yin. So Heaven takes yin as expedient and yang as constant. Yang comes out toward the south, and yin comes out toward the north. The constant is used in times of flourishing, and expediency is used in the closing times. From this one sees that Heaven displays the constant and hides expediency, puts virtue in front and punishment behind. So it is said: yang is Heaven's virtue, and yin is Heaven's punishment. Yang qi is warm and yin qi is cold, yang qi gives and yin qi takes, yang qi is humane and yin qi is violent, yang qi is generous and yin qi is hurried, yang qi loves and yin qi hates, yang qi gives life and yin qi kills. So yang constantly dwells in the full position and moves in times of flourishing, and yin constantly dwells in the empty position and moves in the closing times. Heaven likes humaneness and draws near to it, dislikes the change of violence and keeps far from it, which means great virtue and small punishment: constant first and expediency after, honoring yang and despising yin. So in summer yin enters and dwells below and cannot take charge of the year's work; in winter it comes out and dwells above and is placed in empty spaces. In the time of growth and nurture it lies hidden below, far away, and is not allowed to do the work of yang; in the time of no work, it is raised from the empty place and made to be arrayed in order, keeping and closing off. All of these are Heaven drawing near yang and keeping far from yin, magnifying virtue and minimizing punishment. So the ruler draws near what Heaven draws near, keeps far from what Heaven keeps far from, magnifies what Heaven magnifies, and minimizes what Heaven minimizes. So Heaven's numbers favor yang and do not favor yin, and strive for virtue and not for punishment. Punishment cannot be relied on to complete a generation, just as yin cannot be relied on to complete a year. To govern and employ punishment is called going against Heaven and is not the kingly way.

古之造文者，三畫而連其中，謂之王；三畫者，天地與人也，而連其中者，通其道也，取天地與人之中以為貫，而參通之，非王者庸能當是。是故王者唯天之施，施其時而成之，法其命而循之諸人，法其數而以起事，治其道而以出法，治其志而歸之於仁。仁之美者在於天，天仁也，天覆育萬物，既化而生之，有養而成之，事功無已，終而復始，凡舉歸之以奉人，察於天之意，無窮極之仁也。人之受命於天也，取仁於天而仁也，是故人之受命天之尊，父兄子弟之親，有忠信慈惠之心，有禮義廉讓之行，有是非逆順之治，文理燦然而厚，知廣大有而博，唯人道為可以參天。天常以愛利為意，以養長為事，春秋冬夏皆其用也；王者亦常以愛利天下為意，以安樂一世為事，好惡喜怒而備用也；然而主之好惡喜怒，乃天之春夏秋冬也，其俱暖清寒暑，而以變化成功也；天出此物者，時則歲美，不時則歲惡；人主出此四者，義則世治，不義則世亂，是故治世與美歲同數，亂世與惡歲同數，以此見人理之副天道也。天有寒有暑，夫喜怒哀樂之發，與清暖寒暑其實一貫也，喜氣為暖而當春，怒氣為清而當秋，樂氣為太陽而當夏，哀氣為太陰而當冬，四氣者，天與人所同有也，非人所能蓄也，故可節而不可止也，節之而順，止之而亂。人生於天，而取化於天，喜氣取諸春，樂氣取諸夏，怒氣取諸秋，哀氣取諸冬，四氣之心也。四肢之答各有處，如四時；寒暑不可移，若肢體；肢體移易其處，謂之壬人；寒暑移易其處，謂之敗歲；喜怒移易其處，謂之亂世。明王正喜以當春，正怒以當秋，正樂以當夏，正哀以當冬，上下法此，以取天之道。春氣愛，秋氣嚴，夏氣樂，冬氣哀；愛氣以生物，嚴氣以成功，樂氣以養生，哀氣以喪終，天之志也。

The ancients who made characters drew three strokes and joined the middle, calling it wang, king. The three strokes are Heaven, Earth and Man, and joining the middle is penetrating that Way. Taking the center of Heaven, Earth and Man to run through them and unify and penetrate them, who but a king could bear this? So a king only carries out Heaven's bestowing: he carries out its seasons and completes things, models on its mandate and applies it to people, models on its numbers to initiate affairs, governs its Way to establish laws, and governs its aims to return to humaneness. The beauty of humaneness lies in Heaven. Heaven is humaneness. Heaven covers and nurtures the myriad things, transforming and giving them birth, then nurturing and completing them; its work never stops, ending and beginning again, and all it does returns and is offered to people. Examining Heaven's intention, it is humaneness without limit. People receive their mandate from Heaven and take humaneness from Heaven to become humane. So people receive the honor of Heaven's mandate, have the closeness of fathers, elder brothers, sons and younger brothers, have hearts of loyalty, trust, kindness and generosity, have conduct of ritual, righteousness, integrity and deference, have the governance of right and wrong, contrary and compliant, with patterns that shine and are generous and knowledge that is broad and wide; only the human way can be matched with Heaven. Heaven constantly takes love and benefit as its intention and nurture and growth as its work, and spring, summer, autumn and winter are all its uses; a king too constantly takes loving and benefiting all under Heaven as his intention and bringing peace and joy to one age as his work, and likes, dislikes, joy and anger are all provided for his use. But the ruler's likes, dislikes, joy and anger are Heaven's spring, summer, autumn and winter, all having warmth, coolness, cold and heat, and used to transform and bring about results. When Heaven issues these things in season, the year is fine; when not in season, the year is bad. When the ruler issues these four, if they accord with righteousness the age is well governed, and if they do not accord with righteousness the age is disordered. So a well-governed age and a fine year are the same in number, and a disordered age and a bad year are the same in number, and from this one sees that human principle is the counterpart of Heaven's Way. Heaven has cold and heat. The issuing of joy, anger, sorrow and delight is in fact one thread with coolness, warmth, cold and heat. The qi of joy is warm and matches spring, the qi of anger is cool and matches autumn, the qi of delight is great yang and matches summer, and the qi of sorrow is great yin and matches winter. The four qi are what Heaven and humans have in common, and are not something people can accumulate, so they can be regulated but cannot be stopped. Regulate them and there is accord; stop them and there is disorder. People are born from Heaven and take their transformation from Heaven: the qi of joy is taken from spring, the qi of delight from summer, the qi of anger from autumn, and the qi of sorrow from winter, which is the heart of the four qi. The responses of the four limbs each have their places, like the four seasons; cold and heat cannot be shifted, like the limbs. When limbs shift places, one is called an irregular person; when cold and heat shift places, it is called a ruined year; when joy and anger shift places, it is called a disordered age. A bright king sets joy right to match spring, anger right to match autumn, delight right to match summer, and sorrow right to match winter, and those above and below model on this to take Heaven's Way. The qi of spring is love, the qi of autumn is severity, the qi of summer is delight, and the qi of winter is sorrow. The qi of love is used to give birth to things, the qi of severity to complete work, the qi of delight to nurture life, and the qi of sorrow to mourn endings; this is Heaven's aim.

是故春氣暖者，天之所以愛而生之，秋氣清者，天之所以嚴以成之，夏氣溫者，天之所以樂而養之，冬氣寒者，天之所以哀而藏之；春主生，夏主養，秋主收，冬主藏；生溉其樂以養，死溉其哀以藏，為人子者也。故四時之行，父子之道也；天地之志，君臣之義也；陰陽之理，聖人之法也。陰，刑氣也，陽，德氣也，陰始於秋，陽始於春，春之為言猶偆偆也，秋之為言猶湫湫也，偆偆者，喜樂之貌也，湫湫者，憂悲之狀也。是故春喜、夏樂、秋憂、冬悲，悲死而樂生，以夏養春，以冬藏秋，大人之志也。是故先愛而後嚴，樂生而哀終，天之當也；而人資諸天，天固有此，然而無所之，如其身而已矣。人主立於生殺之位，與天共持變化之勢，物莫不應天化，天地之化如四時，所好之風出，則為暖氣，而有生於俗；所惡之風出，則為清氣，而有殺於俗；喜則為暑氣，而有養長也；怒則為寒氣，而有閉塞也。人主以好惡喜怒變習俗，而天以暖清寒暑化草木，喜怒時而當，則歲美，不時而妄，則歲惡，天地人主一也。然則人主之好惡喜怒，乃天之暖清寒暑也，不可不審其處而出也，當暑而寒，當寒而暑，必為惡歲矣；人主當喜而怒，當怒而喜，必為亂世矣。是故人主之大守在於謹藏而禁內，使好惡喜怒，必當義乃出，若暖清寒暑之必當其時乃發也，人主掌此而無失，使乃好惡喜怒未嘗差也，如春秋冬夏之未嘗過也，可謂參天矣。深藏此四者而勿使妄發，可謂天矣。

So the qi of spring is warm, by which Heaven loves and gives birth; the qi of autumn is cool, by which Heaven is severe and completes; the qi of summer is mild, by which Heaven delights and nurtures; the qi of winter is cold, by which Heaven mourns and stores. Spring governs birth, summer governs nurture, autumn governs gathering, and winter governs storing. When it gives birth it pours its delight to nurture, and when it dies it pours its sorrow to store, as a son does. So the motion of the four seasons is the way of father and son; the aim of Heaven and Earth is the righteousness of ruler and minister; the principle of yin and yang is the law of the sages. Yin is the qi of punishment, and yang is the qi of virtue. Yin begins in autumn and yang begins in spring. The word for spring (chun) is like "xu xu" and the word for autumn (qiu) is like "qiu qiu." Xu xu is the look of joy and delight, and qiu qiu is the condition of sorrow and grief. So spring is joyful, summer is delighted, autumn is sorrowful, and winter is grieving; one grieves for death and delights in life, using summer to nurture spring and winter to store autumn, which is the aim of the great person. So loving first and being severe after, delighting in life and grieving at the end, is what Heaven should do; people take their resources from Heaven. Heaven certainly has these, but there is nowhere else for them to go, and they are like Heaven's own self. The ruler stands in the position of life and death and, together with Heaven, upholds the power of transformation, and nothing fails to respond to Heaven's transformation. The transformation of Heaven and Earth is like the four seasons: when the wind it likes comes out, it becomes warm qi, and in custom there is birth; when the wind it dislikes comes out, it becomes cool qi, and in custom there is killing; joy becomes the qi of heat, and there is growth and nurture; anger becomes the qi of cold, and there is closing and storing. The ruler changes custom with likes, dislikes, joy and anger, and Heaven transforms grass and trees with warmth, coolness, cold and heat. When joy and anger are in season and fitting, the year is fine; when out of season and issued recklessly, the year is bad. Heaven and Earth and the ruler are one matter. So the ruler's likes, dislikes, joy and anger are Heaven's warmth, coolness, cold and heat, and one must examine the right place before issuing them. If cold comes when it should be hot and hot when it should be cold, it will surely become a bad year; if the ruler is angry when he should be joyful and joyful when he should be angry, it will surely become a disordered age. So the ruler's greatest keeping lies in being careful and deeply reserved and prohibiting reckless issue from within, so that likes, dislikes, joy and anger are only issued when they fit righteousness, as warmth, coolness, cold and heat are only issued when they fit the season. If the ruler holds this without fault, so that likes, dislikes, joy and anger never err, as spring, summer, autumn and winter never pass beyond their limits, he can be called a match for Heaven. If he keeps these four deeply stored and does not let them issue recklessly, he can be called Heaven.

天之道，有序而時，有度而節，變而有常，反而有相奉，微而至遠，踔而致精，一而少積蓄，廣而實，虛而盈。聖人視天而行，是故其禁而審好惡喜怒之處也，欲合諸天之非其時不出暖清寒暑也；其告之以政令而化風之清微也，欲合諸天之顛倒其一而以成歲也；其羞淺末華虛而貴敦厚忠信也，欲合諸天之默然不言而功德積成也；其不阿黨偏私而美泛愛兼利也，欲合諸天之所以成物者少霜而多露也；其內自省以是而外顯，不可以不時，人主有喜怒，不可以不時，可亦為時，時亦為義，喜怒以類合，其理一也，故義不義者，時之合類也，而喜怒乃寒暑之彆氣也。

The Way of Heaven has order and seasons, has measure and limits, changes yet has constant rules, returns yet mutually supports, is subtle yet reaches far, crosses over and reaches fineness, is single-minded with little storing, is vast and full, and is empty yet filled. The sages watch Heaven and act. So their prohibiting and examining the places of likes, dislikes, joy and anger is wanting to accord with Heaven: if it is not that time, warmth, coolness, cold and heat are not issued; their using government decrees to instruct and make the transformation clear and fine is wanting to accord with Heaven: reversing one of them and completing a year; their being ashamed of the shallow, superficial and showy and valuing the generous, loyal and trustworthy is wanting to accord with Heaven: silent, without speech, yet merit and virtue accumulate; their not being partial and praising universal love and mutual benefit is wanting to accord with how Heaven completes things: little frost and much dew. Inwardly they examine themselves and so show themselves outwardly, and cannot fail to be in season. The ruler has joy and anger, and cannot fail to be in season; what is permissible is just the time, and the time is just righteousness. Joy and anger match by kind, and the principle is one. So righteousness and unrighteousness are of the same kind as the season, and joy and anger are the separate qi of cold and heat.

難者曰：“陰陽之會，一歲再遇，遇於南方者以中夏，遇於北方者以中冬，冬，喪物之氣也，則其會於是何？”“如金木水火各奉其主，以從陰陽，相與一力而幷功，其實非獨陰陽也，然而陰陽因之以起，助其所主。故少陽因木而起，助春之生也；太陽因火而起，助夏之養也；少陰因金而起，助秋之成也；太陰因水而起，助冬之藏也。陰雖與水幷氣而合冬，其實不同，故水獨有喪而陰不與焉，是以陰陽會於中冬者，非其喪也。春，愛志也，夏，樂志也，秋，嚴志也，冬，哀志也，故愛而有嚴，樂而有哀，四時之則也。喜怒之禍，哀樂之義，不獨在人，亦在於天；而春夏之陽，秋冬之陰，不獨在天，亦在於人。人無春氣，何以博愛而容眾；人無秋氣，何以立嚴而成功；人無夏氣，何以盛養而樂生；人無冬氣，何以哀死而恤喪。天無喜氣，亦何以暖而春生育；天無怒氣，亦何以清而冬殺就；天無樂氣，亦何以疏陽而夏養長；天無哀氣，亦何以瞠陰而冬閉藏。故曰：天乃有喜怒哀樂之行，人亦有春秋冬夏之氣者，合類之謂也。匹夫雖賤，而可以見德刑之用矣。是故陰陽之行，終各六月，遠近同度，而所在異處。陰之行，春居東方，秋居西方，夏居空右，冬居空左，夏居空下，冬居空上，此陰之常處也；陽之行，春居上，冬居下，此陽之常處也。陰終歲四移，而陽常居實，非親陽而疏陰，任德而遠刑與！天之志，常置陰空處，稍取之以為助，故刑者，德之輔，陰者，陽之助也，陽者，歲之主也，天下之昆蟲隨陽而出入，天下之草木隨陽而生落，天下之三王隨陽而改正，天下之尊卑隨陽而序位，幼者居陽之所少，老者居陽之所老，貴者居陽之所盛，賤者居陽之所衰，藏者言其不得當陽，不當陽者，臣子是也，當陽者，君父是也。故人主南面以陽為位也，陽貴而陰賤，天之制也。

A questioner says: "The meetings of yin and yang occur twice a year: the one that meets in the south is at midsummer, and the one that meets in the north is at midwinter. Winter is the qi of the loss of things, so why do they meet there?" Just as metal, wood, water and fire each hold their lord and follow yin and yang, combining strength and sharing merit, it is in fact not yin and yang alone; yet yin and yang rely on them to rise and assist what they govern. So lesser yang relies on wood to rise and assists the birth of spring; great yang relies on fire to rise and assists the nurture of summer; lesser yin relies on metal to rise and assists the completion of autumn; great yin relies on water to rise and assists the storing of winter. Although yin joins its qi with water and meets in winter, in fact they are different, so water alone has mourning and yin does not take part, and so yin and yang meet at midwinter, and it is not its mourning. Spring is the aim of love, summer the aim of delight, autumn the aim of severity, and winter the aim of sorrow. So there is love with severity and delight with sorrow, which is the rule of the four seasons. The calamity of joy and anger and the righteousness of sorrow and delight are not only in people but also in Heaven; and the yang of spring and summer and the yin of autumn and winter are not only in Heaven but also in people. If people had no qi of spring, how could they love broadly and take in the multitude; if people had no qi of autumn, how could they establish severity and accomplish work; if people had no qi of summer, how could they nurture richly and delight in life; if people had no qi of winter, how could they grieve the dead and attend to mourning. If Heaven had no qi of joy, how would it be warm and give birth in spring; if Heaven had no qi of anger, how would it be cool and kill and gather in autumn; if Heaven had no qi of delight, how would it open up yang and nurture and grow in summer; if Heaven had no qi of sorrow, how would it make yin congeal and close and store in winter. So it is said: Heaven has the movement of joy, anger, sorrow and delight, and people have the qi of spring, autumn, winter and summer; this speaks of matching kinds. Even a common man, though lowly, can see the uses of virtue and punishment. So yin and yang move for six months each, with the same distance and degree near and far, but in different places. Yin moves: in spring it dwells in the east, in autumn in the west, in summer in the empty right, in winter in the empty left, in summer in the empty below, in winter in the empty above, which are the constant places of yin; yang moves: in spring it dwells above and in winter below, which are the constant places of yang. Yin moves four times in a year while yang constantly dwells in the full place; is this not drawing near yang and keeping far from yin, employing virtue and distancing punishment! Heaven's aim constantly places yin in the empty spaces and takes it sparingly as an aid. So punishment is the aid of virtue and yin is the aid of yang. Yang is the lord of the year. The insects of the world go in and out with yang, the grass and trees of the world grow and fall with yang, the Three Kings of the world change the calendar with yang, and the honored and lowly of the world are ranked with yang. The young dwell where yang is young, the old dwell where yang is old, the honored dwell where yang is flourishing, and the lowly dwell where yang is declining. What is called storing means it cannot face yang. What does not face yang are subjects and sons; what faces yang are rulers and fathers. So the ruler faces south and takes yang as his position. Yang is honored and yin is lowly: this is Heaven's system.

禮之尚右，非尚陰也，敬老陽而尊成功也。

The ritual preference for the right side is not honoring yin, but respecting old yang and honoring accomplishment.

陽氣始出東北而南行，就其位也，西轉而北入，藏其休也；陰氣始出東南而北行，亦就其位也，西轉而南入，屏其伏也。是故陽以南方為位，以北方為休；陰以北方為位，以南方為伏。陽至其位，而大暑熱；陰至其位，而大寒凍；陽至其休，而入化於地；陰至其伏，而避德於下。是故夏出長於上，冬入化於下者，陽也；夏入守虛地於下，冬出守虛位於上者，陰也。陽出實入實，陰出空入空，天之任陽不任陰，好德不好刑如是也，故陰陽終歲各一齣。

Yang qi begins by coming out of the northeast and moving south, heading for its position; turning west and entering the north, it stores its rest. Yin qi begins by coming out of the southeast and moving north, also heading for its position; turning west and entering the south, it withdraws into its hiding. So yang takes the south as its position and the north as its rest; yin takes the north as its position and the south as its hiding. When yang reaches its position, there is great heat; when yin reaches its position, there is great cold and freezing. When yang reaches its rest, it enters and transforms in the earth; when yin reaches its hiding, it avoids virtue below. So that which comes out above in summer to grow and nurture, and enters below in winter to transform and give birth, is yang; that which enters below in summer to hold the empty earth, and comes out above in winter to hold the empty position, is yin. Yang goes out from the full place and in by the full place; yin goes out from the empty place and in by the empty place. Heaven's employing yang and not yin and liking virtue and not punishment is just like this. So yin and yang each come out once during the year.

天之道，終而復始，故北方者，天之所終始也，陰陽之所合別也。冬至之後，陰俛而西入，陽仰而東出，出入之處，常相反也，多少調和之適，常相順也，有多而無溢，有少而無絕，春夏、陽多而陰少，秋冬、陽少而陰多，多少無常，未嘗不分而相散也，以出入相損益，以多少相溉濟也，多勝少者倍入，入者損一，而出者益二。天所起，一動而再倍，常乘反衡再登之勢，以就同類，與之相報，故其氣相俠，而以變化相輸也。春秋之中，陰陽之氣俱相併也，中春以生，中秋以殺，由此見之，天之所起，其氣積，天之所廢，其氣隨。故至春，少陽東出就木，與之俱生；至夏，太陽南出就火，與之俱暖；此非各就其類，而與之相起與！少陽就木，太陽就火，火木相稱，各就其正，此非正其倫與！至於秋時，少陰興，而不得以秋從金，從金而傷火功，雖不得以從金，亦以秋出於東方，俛其處而適其事，以成歲功，此非權與！陰之行，固常居虛，而不得居實，至於冬，而止空虛，太陽乃得北就其類，而與水起寒，是故天之道，有倫、有經、有權。

The Way of Heaven ends and begins again. So the north is where Heaven ends and begins, and where yin and yang meet and separate. After the winter solstice, yin bends west and enters, yang rises east and comes out, the places of going out and coming in always opposed, and the suitable adjustment of more and less always compliant: there is more without overflowing, and less without breaking off. In spring and summer yang is more and yin is less, in autumn and winter yang is less and yin is more, and more and less have no constant rule, never failing to separate and disperse. By going out and coming in they diminish and increase each other, and by more and less they irrigate and supplement each other. When the greater overcomes the lesser, it enters doubled; what enters decreases by one while what comes out increases by two. What Heaven raises moves once and doubles again, constantly riding the force of returning to the balance and rising again, to move toward its kind and repay it, so their qi hold each other and send to each other by transformation. In the middle of spring and autumn, the qi of yin and yang merge with each other. Midspring is used for birth and midautumn for killing. From this one sees: what Heaven raises, its qi gathers; what Heaven abandons, its qi follows along. So when spring arrives, lesser yang comes out of the east toward wood and generates with it; when summer arrives, great yang comes out of the south toward fire and warms with it. Is this not each heading to its kind and rising together with it! Lesser yang goes to wood, and great yang goes to fire, and fire matches wood, each heading to its proper place; is this not rectifying their relations! When autumn comes, lesser yin rises but cannot follow metal in autumn; if it followed metal it would harm the work of fire. Although it cannot follow metal, it also comes out from the east in autumn, bows to that place and suits its task to complete the work of the year; is this not expediency! The movement of yin certainly constantly dwells in the empty and cannot dwell in the full. When winter comes, it stops in the empty space, and only then can great yang move north toward its kind and rise with water to make cold. So Heaven's Way has relations, has constants, and has expediency.

天地之常，一陰一陽，陽者，天之德也，陰者，天之刑也，跡陰陽終歲之行，以觀天之所親而任，成天之功，猶謂之空，空者之實也，故清溧之於歲也，若酸鹹之於味也，僅有而已矣，聖人之治，亦從而然；天之少陰用於功，太陰用於空，人之少陰用於嚴，而太陰用於喪，喪亦空，空亦喪也。是故天之道以三時成生，以一時喪死，死之者，謂百物枯落也，喪之者，謂陰氣悲哀也。天亦有喜怒之氣，哀樂之心，與人相副，以類合之，天人一也。春，喜氣也，故生；秋，怒氣也，故殺；夏，樂氣也，故養；冬，哀氣也，故藏；四者，天人同有之，有其理而一用之，與天同者大治，與天異者大亂，故為人主之道，莫明於在身之與天同者而用之，使喜怒必當義而出，如寒暑之必當其時乃發也，使德之厚於刑也，如陽之多於陰也。是故天之行陰氣也，少取以成秋，其餘以歸之冬；聖人之行陰氣也，少取以立嚴，其餘以歸之喪，喪亦人之冬氣。故人之太陰不用於刑而用於喪，天之太陰不用於物而用於空，空亦為喪，喪亦為空，其實一也，皆喪死亡之心也。

The constant pattern of Heaven and earth is one yin and one yang. Yang is the virtue of Heaven, and yin is the punishment of Heaven. Tracing the movement of yin and yang through the whole year lets us see whom Heaven favors and employs. Accomplishing the work of Heaven is also called emptiness, and that which is empty is its reality. So coolness and chill in a year are like sourness and saltiness in flavor: only a little of it is present. The sage's governing follows this. Heaven's lesser yin is used in achievement, and its greater yin is used in emptiness; man's lesser yin is used in severity, and his greater yin is used in mourning. Mourning is emptiness, and emptiness is mourning. Therefore the Way of Heaven uses three seasons to accomplish life and one season to mourn death. What is called death means the withering and falling of the hundred things; what is called mourning means the sorrow of yin qi. Heaven too has qi of joy and anger and a mind of sorrow and pleasure, which correspond to those of man. Combined by kind, Heaven and man are one matter. Spring is the qi of joy, so it gives birth; autumn is the qi of anger, so it kills; summer is the qi of pleasure, so it nourishes; winter is the qi of sorrow, so it stores. These four are held in common by Heaven and man; having that principle, one uses it in the same way. Where one is the same as Heaven there is great order, and where one differs from Heaven there is great disorder. So in the Way of the ruler of men, nothing is clearer than to find in oneself what is the same as Heaven and use it: make joy and anger come out only when they fit righteousness, as cold and heat come only at their proper times; make virtue thicker than punishment, as yang is greater than yin. Therefore Heaven, in moving yin qi, takes a little to complete autumn and gives the rest to winter; the sage, in moving yin qi, takes a little to establish severity and gives the rest to mourning. Mourning is just man's winter qi. So man's greater yin is used not in punishment but in mourning, and Heaven's greater yin is used not on things but on emptiness. Emptiness is mourning, and mourning is emptiness; in reality they are one, both being a mind that mourns death and loss.

天道大數，相反之物也，不得俱出，陰陽是也。春出陽而入陰，秋出陰而入陽，夏右陽而左陰，冬右陰而左陽：陰出則陽入，陽出則陰入，陰右則陽左，陰左則陽右，是故春俱南，秋俱北，而不同道；夏交於前，冬交於後，而不同理；並行而不相亂，澆滑而各持分，此之謂天之意。而何以從事？天之道，初薄大冬，陰陽各從一方來，而移於後，陰由東方來西，陽由西方來東，至於中冬之月，相遇北方，合而為一，謂之曰至；別而相去，陰適右，陽適左，適左者，其道順，適右者，其道逆，逆氣左上，順氣右下，故下暖而上寒，以此見天之冬右陰而左陽也，上所右而下所左也。各月盡，而陰陽俱南還，陽南還，出於寅，陰南還，入於戌，此陰陽所始出地入地之見處也。至於中春之月，陽在正東，陰在正西，謂之春分，春分者，陰陽相半也，故晝夜均而寒暑平，陰日損而隨陽，陽日益而檻，故為暖熱，初得大夏之月，相遇南方，合而為一，謂之曰至；別而相去，陽適右，陰適左，適左由下，適右由上，上暑而下寒，以此見天之夏右陽而左陰也，上其所右，下其所左。夏月盡，而陰陽俱北還，陽北還而入於申，陰北還而出於辰，此陰陽所始出地入地之見處也。至於中秋之月，陽在正西，陰在正東，謂之秋分，秋分者，陰陽相半也，故晝夜均而寒暑平，陽日損而隨陰，陰日益而檻，故至於季秋而始霜，至於孟冬而始寒，小雪而物鹹成，大寒而物畢藏，天地之功終矣。

The great number of the Way of Heaven is that opposite things cannot come out at the same time, and yin and yang are such. In spring, yang comes out and yin goes in; in autumn, yin comes out and yang goes in; in summer yang is on the right and yin on the left; in winter yin is on the right and yang on the left. When yin comes out, yang goes in; when yang comes out, yin goes in; when yin is on the right, yang is on the left; when yin is on the left, yang is on the right. Therefore in spring both face south and in autumn both face north, but their paths differ; in summer they cross in front and in winter they cross behind, but their principles differ. They travel side by side without confusing each other, and though they intermingle each holds its own post; this is what is called Heaven's intention. How then is the work done? In the Way of Heaven, as it begins to draw near the great winter, yin and yang each come from one side and move backward: yin comes from the east and goes west, yang comes from the west and goes east, and in the middle month of winter they meet in the north and join into one, which is called the solstice; then they separate and leave, with yin going to the right and yang to the left. The one that goes left has a smooth Way; the one that goes right has a reversed Way. The reversed qi is in the upper left and the smooth qi is in the lower right, so below is warm and above is cold. From this we see that in winter Heaven takes yin as its right and yang as its left, with the upper favoring the right and the lower favoring the left. When the months are exhausted, yin and yang both return south: yang returns south and comes out from yin (the third branch), yin returns south and enters from xu (the eleventh branch). These are the places where we can see yin and yang beginning to go out of and into the earth. In the middle month of spring, yang is exactly in the east and yin exactly in the west, which is called the spring equinox. At the spring equinox, yin and yang are each half, so day and night are equal and cold and heat balanced. Yin decreases day by day and follows yang, and yang increases day by day and grows strong, so it becomes warm and hot. When the great summer month has just arrived, they meet in the south and join into one, which is called the solstice; then they separate and leave, with yang going to the right and yin to the left. What goes left goes from below, and what goes right goes from above, so above is hot and below is cold. From this we see that in summer Heaven takes yang as its right and yin as its left, with what is above being its right and what is below being its left. When the summer months are exhausted, yin and yang both return north: yang returns north and enters at shen (the ninth branch), yin returns north and comes out at chen (the fifth branch). These are the places where we can see yin and yang beginning to go out of and into the earth. In the middle month of autumn, yang is exactly in the west and yin exactly in the east, which is called the autumn equinox. At the autumn equinox, yin and yang are each half, so day and night are equal and cold and heat balanced. Yang decreases day by day and follows yin, and yin increases day by day and grows strong, so in the last month of autumn frost begins to fall, in the first month of winter cold begins, with light snow things are all completed, and with great cold everything is stored away, and the work of Heaven and earth is finished.

天之常道，相反之物也，不得兩起，故謂之一；一而不二者，天之行也。陰與陽，相反之物也，故或出或入，或右或左，春俱南，秋俱北，夏交於前，冬交於後，並行而不同路，交會而各代理，此其文與！天之道，有一齣一入，一休一伏，其度一也，然而不同意。陽之出，常縣於前，而任歲事；陰之出，常縣於後，而守空虛；陽之休也，功已成於上，而伏於下；陰之伏也，不得近義，而遠其處也。天之任陽不任陰，好德不好刑，如是。故陽出而前，陰出而後，尊德而卑刑之心見矣。陽出而積於夏，任德以歲事也；陰出而積於冬，錯刑于空處也；必以此察之。天無常於物，而一於時，時之所宜，而一為之。故開一、塞一、起一、廢一，至畢時而止，終有復始於一，一者，一也。是於天凡在陰位者，皆惡亂善，不得主名，天之道也。故常一而不滅，天之道。事無大小，物無難易，反天之道無成者。是以目不能二視，耳不能二聽，手不能二事。一手畫方，一手畫圓，莫能成。人為小易之物，而終不能成，反天之不可行，如是。是故古之人，物而書文，心止於一中者，謂之忠；持二中者，謂之患；患，人之中不一者也，不一者，故患之所由生也，是故君子賤二而貴一。人庸無善，善不一，故不足以立身；治庸無常？常不一，故不足以致功。詩云：“上帝臨汝，無二爾心。”知天道者之言也！

The constant way of Heaven is that of opposite things, and the two cannot rise at the same time, so it is called One. One and not two is the movement of Heaven. Yin and yang are opposite things, so they either go out or go in, either right or left: in spring both face south, in autumn both face north, in summer they cross in front, in winter they cross behind, traveling side by side without sharing a road, meeting and each acting in turn; this is surely their pattern! In the Way of Heaven, there is one going out and one going in, one resting and one hiding, and the measure is the same, but the meaning differs. When yang comes out, it always hangs in front and takes charge of the year's work; when yin comes out, it always hangs behind and guards emptiness. When yang rests, its work has already been completed above and it hides below; when yin lies hidden, it is not allowed to approach righteousness and stays far from its place. Heaven employs yang and does not employ yin, loves virtue and does not love punishment, just like this. So yang comes out in front and yin comes out behind, and the mind that honors virtue and lowers punishment can be seen. Yang comes out and gathers in summer, using virtue to do the work of the year; yin comes out and gathers in winter, putting punishment in an empty place. This must be examined with this principle. Heaven has no fixed rule for things, but is single-minded about time. What the time suits, it does single-mindedly. So it opens one, closes one, raises one, abolishes one, and stops only when the season is done, and when it ends it begins again with one. One means single-minded. So everything in the yin position hates to disturb the good and is not allowed to take the main name; this is the Way of Heaven. So to be constantly single-minded and not die out is the Way of Heaven. Whether an affair is large or small and a thing hard or easy, no one who goes against the Way of Heaven can succeed. Therefore the eyes cannot look at two things at once, the ears cannot hear two things at once, and the hands cannot do two things at once. With one hand drawing a square and the other a circle, nothing can be accomplished. In doing small and easy things, people can never complete them in the end; this is how it is that going against Heaven cannot be done. For this reason the ancients, in writing characters for things, wrote that a mind that stops in one center is called loyalty, and a mind holding to two centers is called trouble. Trouble means a person's center is not single; because it is not single, it is where trouble comes from. So the gentleman makes light of two and makes much of one. Where does a person lack goodness? But if goodness is not single, it is not enough to establish oneself. Where does governing lack a rule? But if the rule is not single, it is not enough to bring success. The Book of Songs, in the Great Odes, 'Daming,' says: 'The Lord on High is looking down on you; do not have a double heart.' These are the words of one who knows the Way of Heaven!

天之道，出陽為暖以生之，出陰為清以成之。是故非燻也，不能有育，非溧也，不能有熟，歲之精也。知心而不省燻與溧庸多者，用之必與天戾，與天戾，雖勞不成。是自正月至於十月，而天之功畢，計其間，陰與陽各居幾何？燻與溧其日庸多？距物之初生，至其畢成，露與霜其下庸倍？故從中春至於秋，氣溫柔和調，及季秋九月，陰乃始多於陽，天於是時出溧下霜，出溧下霜，而天降物，固已皆成矣。故九月者，天之功大究於是月也，十月而悉畢，故案其跡，數其實，清溧之日少少耳，功已畢成之後，陰乃大出，天之成功也，少陰與而太陰不與，少陰在內，而太陰在外，故霜加於物，而雪加於空，空者，亶地而已，不逮物也，功已畢成之後，物未復生之前，太陰之所當出也，雖曰陰，亦以太陽資化其位，而不知所受之。故聖王在上位，天覆地載，風令雨施，雨施者，佈德均也，風令者，言令直也。詩云：“不識不知，順帝之則。”言弗能知識，而效天之所為云爾。禹水湯旱，非常經也，適遭世氣之變而陰陽失平，堯視民如子，民視堯如父母，尚書曰：“二十有八載，放勳乃殂落，百姓如喪考妣，四海之內，閼密八音三年。”三年陽氣厭於陰，陰氣大興，此禹所以有水名也。桀，天下之殘賊也，湯，天下之盛德也，天下除殘賊而得盛德大善者，再是重陽也，故湯有旱之名，皆適遭之變，非禹湯之過，毋以適遭之變，疑平生之常，則所守不失，則正道益明。

The Way of Heaven sends out yang as warmth to give life and sends out yin as coolness to bring completion. Therefore without warmth there can be no nurturing, and without coolness there can be no ripening; these are the essence of a year. One who knows this in the mind but does not examine whether warmth or coolness is more, will surely be at odds with Heaven in his use; and being at odds with Heaven, however much he toils he cannot succeed. From the first month to the tenth, Heaven's work is finished. Counting what is in between, how much belongs to yin and how much to yang? Which are more numerous, the days of warmth or the days of coolness? From the time things first begin to grow until they are fully completed, which are doubled, the dews or the frosts that descend? So from mid-spring to autumn the qi is gentle and harmonious; only in the last month of autumn, the ninth month, does yin begin to exceed yang, and at that time Heaven sends out coolness and brings frost. When it sends out coolness and brings frost, the things Heaven sends down have already been completed. So in the ninth month, Heaven's work is greatly exhausted in this month, and in the tenth month it is wholly finished. So by tracing the signs and counting the reality, the days of coolness are very few. Only after the work is finished and completed does yin come out in great strength. In the completion of Heaven's work, the lesser yin takes part and the greater yin does not: the lesser yin is within, the greater yin is outside, so frost falls on things, and snow falls on empty places. Emptiness is merely the ground and does not reach things. After the work has been finished and completed, and before things are born again, is when the greater yin should come out. Even though it is called yin, it uses greater yang to help and change its position, and does not know what it receives. So when a sage king is on the throne, Heaven covers and earth bears, wind carries out commands and rain spreads out. Rain spreading means spreading virtue evenly; wind carrying out commands means that orders are upright. The Book of Songs, in the Great Odes, 'Huangyi,' says: 'Without knowing or understanding, following the Lord on High's law.' This means one cannot know and recognize, but only imitates what Heaven does. Yu had floods and Tang had droughts, not as a constant rule, but only because they happened to meet a change in the age's qi in which yin and yang lost balance. Yao regarded the people as his children, and the people regarded Yao as their parents. The Book of Documents, 'Canon of Shun,' says: 'In the twenty-eighth year, Fangxun died, and the people grieved as if for a lost father and mother; within the four seas the eight kinds of music were stopped for three years.' For three years yang qi was pressed down by yin, and yin qi arose greatly, and this is the reason Yu had the name of floods. Jie was the world's cruel pest, and Tang was the world's flourishing virtue. When the world got rid of the cruel pest and obtained flourishing virtue and great goodness, and again did so, it was doubled yang, so Tang had the name of droughts. These were all changes that happened by chance, and not faults of Yu or Tang. Do not use the changes that happened by chance to doubt the constant rule of one's whole life, and what one holds to will not be lost, and the right Way will be even clearer.

凡物必有合；合必有上，必有下，必有左，必有右，必有前，必有後，必有表，必有裡，有美必有惡，有順必有逆，有喜必有怒，有寒必有暑，有晝必有夜，此皆其合也。陰者，陽之合，妻者，夫之合，子者，父之合，臣者，君之合，物莫無合，而合各相陰陽。陽兼於陰，陰兼於陽，夫兼於妻，妻兼於夫，父兼於子，子兼於父，君兼於臣，臣兼於君，君臣、父子、夫婦之義，皆取諸陰陽之道。君為陽，臣為陰，父為陽，子為陰，夫為陽，妻為陰，陰陽無所獨行，其始也不得專起，其終也不得分功，有所兼之義。是故臣兼功於君，子兼功於父，妻兼功於夫，陰兼功於陽，地兼功於天。舉而上者，抑而下也，有屏而左也，有引而右也，有親而任也，有疏而遠也，有欲日益也，有欲日損也，益其用而損其妨，有時損少而益多，有時損多而益少，少而不至絕，多而不至溢。陰陽二物，終歲各壹出，壹其出，遠近同度而不同意，陽之出也，常縣於前而任事，陰之出也，常縣於後而守空處，此見天之親陽而疏陰，任德而不任刑也。是故仁義制度之數，盡取之天，天為君而覆露之，地為臣而持載之，陽為夫而生之，陰為婦而助之，春為父而生之，夏為子而養之，秋為死而棺之，冬為痛而喪之，王道之三綱，可求於天。天出陽為暖以生之，地出陰為清以成之，不暖不生，不清不成，然而計其多少之分，則暖暑居百而清寒居一，德教之與刑罰猶此也。故聖人多其愛而少其嚴，厚其德而簡其刑，以此配天。天之大數，必有十旬，旬天地之數，十而畢反，旬生長之功，十而畢成。天之氣徐，占寒占暑，故寒不凍，暑不暍，以其有餘徐來，不暴卒也。易曰：“履霜堅在，蓋言遜也。

Every thing must have a counterpart. A counterpart must have an above and a below, a left and a right, a front and a back, an outside and an inside. Where there is beauty there must be ugliness, where there is compliance there must be opposition, where there is joy there must be anger, where there is cold there must be heat, where there is day there must be night; these are all its counterparts. Yin is the counterpart of yang, wife is the counterpart of husband, son is the counterpart of father, minister is the counterpart of ruler. No thing is without a counterpart, and each counterpart is in turn yin and yang to the other. Yang contains yin, and yin contains yang; husband contains wife, and wife contains husband; father contains son, and son contains father; ruler contains minister, and minister contains ruler. The principles of ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife are all drawn from the Way of yin and yang. The ruler is yang, the minister is yin; the father is yang, the son is yin; the husband is yang, the wife is yin. Yin and yang have no independent movement; at the beginning they cannot arise alone, and at the end they cannot divide the merit, for there is a principle of containing. Therefore the minister gives his merit to the ruler, the son gives his merit to the father, the wife gives her merit to the husband, yin gives its merit to yang, and earth gives its merit to Heaven. What is raised up above has something suppressed below; some are pushed back to the left, some drawn forward to the right; some are favored and used, some kept distant; some want to increase daily, and some want to decrease daily. One increases its use and decreases its hindrance, sometimes reducing little and increasing much, sometimes reducing much and increasing little: little but not to the point of being cut off, much but not to the point of overflowing. The two things, yin and yang, each come out once during the year. When they come out, the near and far measures are the same but the meaning differs. When yang comes out, it always hangs in front and takes charge; when yin comes out, it always hangs behind and guards empty places. This shows that Heaven favors yang and keeps yin at a distance, employing virtue and not employing punishment. Therefore the numbers of benevolence, righteousness and institutions are all taken from Heaven: Heaven is the ruler, covering and moistening; earth is the minister, holding and bearing; yang is the husband, giving life; yin is the wife, assisting; spring is the father, giving birth; summer is the son, nurturing; autumn is death, entering the coffin; winter is pain, seeing off the funeral. The three bonds of the kingly way can be sought in Heaven. Heaven sends out yang as warmth to give life, and earth sends out yin as coolness to bring completion. Without warmth there is no life, without coolness there is no completion. But when the shares of more and less are counted, warmth and heat account for one hundred and coolness and cold account for one. Virtuous teaching and punishment are just like this. So the sage increases his love and lessens his severity, thickens his virtue and simplifies his punishment, and so matches Heaven. The great number of Heaven must have ten xun. The xun is the number of Heaven and earth; reaching ten, it completes and returns; the growing work of a xun is finished and completed at ten. Heaven's qi is unhurried, with brief cold and brief heat, so that cold does not freeze and heat does not strike, because it has a surplus and arrives slowly, without violence. The Book of Changes, in the hexagram Kun, says: 'Treading on frost, solid ice will come.' (The original has 'jian zai', where 'zai' is an error for 'bing', ice.) It probably speaks of gentle compliance.

”然則上堅不踰等，果是天之所為弗作而成也，人之所為亦當弗作而極也，凡有興者，稍稍上之，以遜順往，使人心說而安之，無使人心恐，故曰：君子以人治人，慬能願。此之謂也。聖人之道，同諸天地，蕩諸四海，變易習俗。

Then the firmness above does not overstep the grades, and this is truly what Heaven does, completing without contriving. What man does should also reach its limit without contriving. In whatever rises, go gradually upward, proceeding with gentle compliance, so that people's hearts are glad and settled and not made fearful. So it is said: the gentleman governs people by means of people and only brings them to what they wish. This is what is meant. The Way of the sage is the same as Heaven and earth, washing over the four seas and changing customs.

天之道，春暖以生，夏暑以養，秋清以殺，冬寒以藏，暖暑清寒，異氣而同功，皆天之所以成歲也。聖人副天之所行以為政，故以慶副暖而當春，以賞副暑而當夏，以罰副清而當秋，以刑副寒而當冬，慶賞罰刑，異事而同功，皆王者之所以成德也。慶賞罰刑，與春夏秋冬，以類相應也，如合符，故曰：王者配天，謂其道。天有四時，王有四政，若四時，通類也，天人所同有也。慶為春，賞為夏，罰為秋，刑為冬。慶賞罰刑之不可不具也，如春夏秋冬不可不備也；慶賞罰刑，當其處不可不發，若暖暑清寒，當其時不可不出也；慶賞罰刑各有正處，如春夏秋冬各有時也；四政者不可以相干也，猶四時不可相干也；四政者不可以易處也，猶四時不可易處也。故慶賞罰刑有不行於其正處者，春秋譏也。

In the Way of Heaven, spring warmth is used to give birth, summer heat to nurture, autumn coolness to kill, and winter cold to store. Warmth, heat, coolness and cold are different in qi but the same in work, and all are how Heaven completes the year. The sage takes what Heaven does as a model for governing, so he uses commendation to pair with warmth and correspond to spring, reward to pair with heat and correspond to summer, penalty to pair with coolness and correspond to autumn, and punishment to pair with cold and correspond to winter. Commendation, reward, penalty and punishment differ in matter but are the same in work, and all are how a true king completes virtue. Commendation, reward, penalty and punishment correspond to spring, summer, autumn and winter by kind, as if matching tallies. So it is said: the true king matches Heaven, which speaks of his Way. Heaven has four seasons and the king has four governing acts, like the four seasons; this is a common kind, held in common by Heaven and man. Commendation is spring, reward is summer, penalty is autumn, punishment is winter. Commendation, reward, penalty and punishment cannot be left incomplete, as spring, summer, autumn and winter cannot be incomplete; commendation, reward, penalty and punishment must be sent out at the proper place, as warmth, heat, coolness and cold must be sent out at the proper time; commendation, reward, penalty and punishment each have their proper place, as spring, summer, autumn and winter each have their season. The four acts of government cannot interfere with each other, just as the four seasons cannot interfere with each other; the four acts cannot change places, just as the four seasons cannot change places. So when commendation, reward, penalty and punishment are carried out where they do not belong, the Spring and Autumn Annals criticizes it.

天德施，地德化，人德義。天氣上，地氣下，人氣在其間。春生夏長，百物以興，秋殺冬收，百物以藏。故莫精於氣，莫富於地，莫神於天，天地之精所以生物者，莫貴於人。人受命乎天也，故超然有以倚；物?疾莫能為仁義，唯人獨能為仁義；物?疾莫能偶天地，唯人獨能偶天地。人有三百六十節，偶天之數也；形體骨肉，偶地之厚也；上有耳目聰明，日月之象也；體有空竅理脈，川穀之象也；心有哀樂喜怒，神氣之類也；觀人之體，一何高物之甚，而類於天也。物旁折取天之陰陽以生活耳，而人乃爛然有其文理，是故凡物之形，莫不伏從旁折天地而行，人獨題直立端尚正正當之，是故所取天地少者旁折之，所取天地多者正當之，此見人之絕於物而參天地。是故人之身首●而員，象天容也；發象星辰也；耳目戾戾，象日月也；鼻口呼吸，象風氣也；胸中達知，象神明也；腹胞實虛，象百物也；百物者最近地，故要以下地也，天地之象，以要為帶，頸以上者，精神尊嚴，明天類之狀也；頸而下者，豐厚卑辱，土壤之比也；足布而方，地形之象也。是故禮帶置紳，必直其頸，以別心也，帶以上者，盡為陽，帶而下者，盡為陰，各其分，陽，天氣也，陰，地氣也，故陰陽之動使，人足病喉痺起，則地氣上為雲雨，而象亦應之也。天地之符，陰陽之副，常設於身，身猶天也，數與之相參，故命與之相連也。天以終歲之數，成人之身，故小節三百六十六，副日數也；大節十二分，副月數也；內有五臟，副五行數也；外有四肢，副四時數也；占視占瞑，副晝夜也；占剛占柔，副冬夏也；占哀占樂，副陰陽也；心有計慮，副度數也；行有倫理，副天地也；此皆暗膚著身，與人俱生，比而偶之弇合，於其可數也，副數，不可數者，副類，皆當同而副天一也。

The virtue of Heaven is bestowing, the virtue of earth is transforming, and the virtue of man is righteousness. Heavenly qi is above, earthly qi is below, and human qi is in the middle. In spring things are born and in summer they grow, and the hundred things rise because of this; in autumn they are killed and in winter stored, and the hundred things are stored because of this. So nothing is more refined than qi, nothing is richer than earth, and nothing is more spiritual than Heaven. Among the things born from the essence of Heaven and earth, none is nobler than man. Man receives his mandate from Heaven, so he is transcendent and has something to rely on. Of things [a rare character lost in transcription] diseases, none can practice benevolence and righteousness, and only man alone can practice benevolence and righteousness; none can match Heaven and earth, and only man alone can match Heaven and earth. Man has three hundred and sixty joints, matching the number of Heaven; his form, bones and flesh match the thickness of earth; above he has ears and eyes that are keen and clear, taking the image of the sun and moon; his body has orifices, patterns and vessels, taking the image of rivers and valleys; his mind has sorrow, pleasure, joy and anger, which are of the kind of spirit and qi. Look at man's body, how far above things it stands and how like Heaven it is! Other things merely bend sideways and take Heaven's yin and yang to live by, while man alone is resplendent with pattern. Therefore the form of every thing is such that it lies prone and travels bent sideways to Heaven and earth, while man alone holds his forehead up, standing upright and facing them squarely. So those who take little of Heaven and earth bend sideways, and those who take much face them squarely, which shows that man stands out beyond things and is a third with Heaven and earth. Therefore man's head, [a rare character in the original is damaged] round, takes the image of Heaven's appearance; his hair takes the image of the stars; his ears and eyes are distinct, taking the image of the sun and moon; the breathing of nose and mouth takes the image of wind and qi; the breadth of his chest, which is open and aware, takes the image of the spirits and brightness; the abdomen, sometimes full and sometimes empty, takes the image of the hundred things. The hundred things are closest to the earth, so everything below the waist is earth. In the image of Heaven and earth, the waist is the belt: above the neck, the spirit is dignified, which is the state that makes clear the kind of Heaven; below the neck, it is rich, thick and lowly, comparable to the soil; the feet spread out and square, taking the form of earth. For this reason the belt of ritual dress has a sash, which must face the neck, to distinguish the mind. Above the belt is all yang, and below the belt is all yin, each having its function. Yang is Heavenly qi, and yin is earthly qi. So when yin and yang move and cause foot disease or throat blockage in people, earthly qi rises as cloud and rain, and the image responds to it. The tokens of Heaven and earth and the counterpart of yin and yang are constantly set in the body. The body is like Heaven, and its numbers participate with it, so life is joined to it. Heaven uses the number of a whole year to complete a person's body: so the small joints, three hundred and sixty-six, are the counterpart of the number of days; the large joints, twelve parts, are the counterpart of the number of months; the five viscera within are the counterpart of the number of the five phases; the four limbs outside are the counterpart of the number of the four seasons; the occasional seeing and occasional closing of the eyes are the counterpart of day and night; occasional firmness and occasional softness are the counterpart of winter and summer; occasional sorrow and occasional pleasure are the counterpart of yin and yang; the mind having reckoning is the counterpart of the measures; conduct having order is the counterpart of Heaven and earth. All of these secretly attach to the body, are born together with man, and are matched and joined with him. For what can be numbered, the counterpart is a number; for what cannot be numbered, the counterpart is a kind. All should be the same and paired with Heaven; this is one matter.

是故陳其有形，以著無形者，拘其可數，以著其不可數者，以此言道之亦宜以類相應，猶其形也，以數相中也。

So one sets out what has form to make clear what has no form, and holds to what can be numbered to make clear what cannot be numbered. By this I say: the Way too should correspond by kind, like its form, and match through numbers with one another.

今平地注水，去燥就溼；均薪施火，去溼就燥；百物去其所與異，而從其所與同。故氣同則會，聲比則應，其驗皦然也。試調琴瑟而錯之，鼓其宮，則他宮應之，鼓其商，而他商應之，五音比而自鳴，非有神，其數然也。美事召美類，惡事召惡類，類之相應而起也，如馬鳴則馬應之，牛鳴則牛應之。帝王之將興也，其美祥亦先見，其將亡也，妖孽亦先見，物故以類相召也，故以龍致雨，以扇逐暑，軍之所處，以棘楚，美惡皆有從來以為命，莫知其處所。天將陰雨，人之病故為之先動，是陰相應而起也；天將欲陰雨，又使人慾睡臥者，陰氣也；有憂，亦使人臥者，是陰相求也；有喜者，使人不欲臥者，是陽相索也；水得夜，益長數分，東風而酒湛溢；病者至夜，而疾益甚；雞至幾明，皆鳴而相薄，其氣益精；故陽益陽，而陰益陰，陰陽之氣因可以類相益損也。天有陰陽，人亦有陰陽，天地之陰氣起，而人之陰氣應之而起，人之陰氣起，天地之陰氣亦宜應之而起，其道一也。明於此者，欲致雨，則動陰以起陰，欲止雨，則動陽以起陽，故致雨，非神也，而疑於神者，其理微妙也。非獨陰陽之氣可以類進退也，雖不祥禍福所從生，亦由是也，無非已先起之，而物以類應之而動者也，故聰明聖神，內視反聽，言為明聖內視反聽，故獨明聖者知其本心皆在此耳。故琴瑟報，彈其宮，他宮自鳴而應之，此物之以類動者也，其動以聲而無形，人不見其動之形，則謂之自鳴也，又相動無形，則謂之自然，其實非自然也，有使之然者矣，物固有實使之，其使之無形，尚書傳言：“周將興之時，有大赤鳥銜谷之種，而集王屋之上者，武王喜，諸大夫皆喜。周公曰：茂哉！茂哉！天之見此以勸之也。”恐恃之。

Now if water is poured on level ground, the water leaves what is dry and goes toward what is wet; if firewood is spread evenly and set alight, the fire leaves what is wet and goes toward what is dry. The hundred things leave what is different from themselves and follow what is the same as themselves. So qi that is the same will gather, sounds that are alike will respond, and the evidence of this is clear. Try tuning a zither and setting it down: strike the gong note, and the other gong strings respond; strike the shang note, and the other shang strings respond. The five notes are alike and sound by themselves, not because there is a spirit but because the numbers make it so. Good affairs call forth good kinds, and evil affairs call forth evil kinds, with kinds responding and arising, as when a horse neighs and horses answer, and an ox lows and oxen answer. When an emperor or king is about to rise, auspicious omens appear first; when he is about to perish, ominous portents appear first. Things originally call to each other by kind. So a dragon is used to bring rain, a fan to drive away heat, and brambles grow where armies have camped. Good and evil all have a source that is taken as fate, and no one knows where it lies. When Heaven is about to cloud and rain, people's old illnesses flare up first, because yin responds and rises; when Heaven is about to cloud and rain, it also makes people want to lie down and sleep, which is yin qi; when there is worry it also makes people lie down, because yin seeks yin; when there is joy people do not want to lie down, because yang seeks yang. Water rises a little more at night; when the east wind comes, wine brims more; the sick grow worse at night; and roosters, near dawn, all crow and press on each other, because the qi is then more refined. So yang adds to yang and yin adds to yin, and the qi of yin and yang can thus increase and decrease each other by kind. Heaven has yin and yang, and man also has yin and yang. When the yin qi of Heaven and earth rises, man's yin qi responds and rises; when man's yin qi rises, the yin qi of Heaven and earth should also respond and rise, and the Way is one. One who understands this, wanting to bring rain, stirs yin to raise yin; wanting to stop rain, stirs yang to raise yang. So bringing rain is not a spirit, yet people suspect it is a spirit, because the principle is subtle. Not only can the qi of yin and yang advance and retreat by kind; even the sources of ill omens, fortune and misfortune come from this: they are nothing but one first raising it himself, and things responding by kind and moving. So the clear-sighted and sage-like look inward and listen back. This is what is called looking inward and listening back as the enlightened and sage, so that only the enlightened sage knows his original heart lies in this. So the zither and lute repay: strike the gong note, and the other gong strings sound by themselves and respond, because things move by kind. Their movement uses sound and has no form, and people cannot see the form of the movement, so they call it self-sounding; and they strike one another without form, so they call it natural. In fact it is not natural; something makes it so. There is truly something that actually causes it, but what causes it has no form. A tradition of the Book of Documents says: 'When Zhou was about to rise, a great red bird carrying grain seeds alighted on the roof of the king's house; King Wu was glad, and all the grand masters were glad. The Duke of Zhou said: Strive! Strive! Heaven shows this to encourage us.' I fear that people would rely on it for this reason.

天地之氣，合而為一，分為陰陽，判為四時，列為五行。行者，行也，其行不同，故謂之五行。五行者，五官也，比相生而間相勝也，故為治，逆之則亂，順之則治。

The qi of Heaven and earth joins as one, divides into yin and yang, splits into the four seasons, and is arrayed as the five phases. Xing means to move. Their movements differ, so they are called the five phases. The five phases are the five offices. Those adjacent produce each other, and those separated overcome each other. So in governing, to go against them brings disorder and to follow them brings order.

東方者木，農之本，司農尚仁，進經術之士，道之以帝王之路，將順其美，匡捄其惡，執規而生，至溫潤下，知地形肥磽美惡，立事生則，因地之宜，召公是也；親入南畝之中，觀民墾草發淄，耕種五穀，積蓄有餘，家給人足，倉庫充實，司馬實谷，司馬，本朝也，本朝者，火也，故曰木生火。

The east is wood, the root of agriculture. The Minister of Agriculture values benevolence and advances scholars of the classics, leading with the way of emperors and kings; he will follow the ruler's goodness and correct and remedy his evils, holding the compass and producing life, reaching to gentle moistness flowing downward, knowing whether the terrain is fertile or poor, good or bad, setting up rules for affairs, and following what suits the land. The Duke of Shao was like this. He personally entered the southern fields, watching the people clear weeds and open up black soil, plant the five grains, store a surplus, make each household sufficient and each person content, and fill the granaries. The Minister of War fills the grain stores; the Minister of War is the chief of the court, the court is fire, so it is said that wood produces fire.

南方者火也，本朝司馬尚智，進賢聖之士，上知天文，其形兆未見，其萌芽未生，昭然獨見存亡之機，得失之要，治亂之源，豫禁未然之前，執矩而長，至忠厚仁，輔翼其君，周公是也；成王幼弱，周公相，誅管叔蔡叔，以定天下，天下既寧以安。君官者，司營也，司營者，土也，故曰火生土。

The south is fire, and the Minister of War of the chief court values wisdom and advances worthy and sage scholars. Above he knows the patterns of Heaven, and before signs have appeared and sprouts have come out, he alone can plainly see the subtle signs of survival and ruin, the main points of gain and loss, and the root of order and disorder, forbidding beforehand before it has happened; he holds the square and grows, reaching to loyalty, generosity and benevolence, and assists his ruler. The Duke of Zhou was like this. King Cheng was young and weak, and the Duke of Zhou served as chancellor, executed Guan Shu and Cai Shu to bring peace to the world, and the world was already at peace. The ruler's officer is the Minister of Camps, and the Minister of Camps is earth, so it is said that fire produces earth.

中央者土，君官也，司營尚信，卑身賤體，夙興夜寐，稱述往古，以厲主意，明見成敗，微諫納善，防滅其惡，絕源塞●，執繩而制四方，至忠厚信，以事其君，據義割恩，太公是也；應天因時之化，威武強御以成。大理者，司徒也，司徒者，金也，故曰土生金。

The center is earth, the ruler's officer. The Minister of Camps values good faith, lowers himself and despises his own body, rises early and retires late, speaks of ancient times, so as to whet the ruler's intentions, clearly sees success and failure, admonishes with subtle words and accepts good, prevents and eliminates evil, cuts off the source and blocks the [a rare character here is damaged], holds the plumb line and restrains the four quarters, reaching to loyalty, generosity and good faith, serving his ruler and, relying on righteousness, cutting off favor. Taigong was like this. He responded to Heaven, followed the transformation of the seasons, and completed his work with martial strength and force. The Grand Judge is the Minister of the Masses, and the Minister of the Masses is metal, so it is said that earth produces metal.

西方者金，大理，司徒也，司徒尚義，臣死君，而眾人死父，親有尊卑，位有上下，各死其事，事不踰矩，執權而伐，兵不苟克，取不苟得，義而後行，至廉而威，質直剛毅，子●是也；伐有罪，討不義，是以百姓附親，邊境安寧，寇賊不發，邑無獄訟則親安。執法者，司寇也，司寇者，水也，故曰金生水。

The west is metal, the Grand Judge and Minister of the Masses. The Minister of the Masses values righteousness: ministers die for their ruler, and the multitude die for the lord and father; kin have honor and humility, positions have above and below, each dies for his own task, and affairs do not exceed the rules; he holds the scale and campaigns, the army does not seek victory carelessly, takings are not made carelessly for gain, and righteousness is carried out first, reaching to integrity with awe-inspiring authority, being straightforward and resolute. Zi [a rare character here is damaged] was like this. He attacked the guilty and punished the unrighteous, so the people drew near, the borders were at peace, bandits did not arise, and cities had no lawsuits and were at peace. The one who enforces law is the Minister of Crime, and the Minister of Crime is water, so it is said that metal produces water.

北方者水，執法，司寇也，司寇尚禮，君臣有位，長幼有序，朝廷有爵，鄉黨以齒，升降揖讓，般伏拜謁，折旋中矩，立則罄折，拱則抱鼓，執衡而藏，至清廉平，賂遺不受，請謁不聽，據法聽訟，無有所阿，孔子是也；為魯司寇，斷獄屯屯，與眾共之，不敢自專，是死者不恨，生者不怨，百工維時以成器械，器械既成，以給司農。司農者，田官也，田官者木，故曰水生木。

The north is water, the enforcer of law and Minister of Crime. The Minister of Crime values ritual: ruler and minister have their positions, old and young have their order, the court has rank, the village follows age, with ascending, descending, bowing and yielding, kneeling and paying respects, turning in accord with rules, standing bent like a chime and with hands clasped like holding a drum; he holds the balance and stores, reaching to integrity and fairness, not accepting bribes, not heeding petitions, hearing lawsuits according to law, without partiality. Confucius was like this. As Minister of Crime of Lu, he judged cases with sincerity and single-mindedness, together with the multitude, not daring to decide alone, so the dead did not hate and the living did not resent. The hundred craftsmen make implements in season, and when the implements are complete they are supplied to the Minister of Agriculture. The Minister of Agriculture is the field officer, the field officer is wood, so it is said that water produces wood.

木者，司農也，司農為奸，朋黨比周，以蔽主明，退匿賢士，絕滅公卿，教民奢侈，賓客交通，不勸田事，博戲鬥雞，走狗弄馬，長幼無禮，大小相虜，併為寇賊，橫恣絕理，司徒誅之，齊桓是也；行霸任兵，侵蔡，蔡潰，遂伐楚，楚人降伏，以安中國。木者，君之官也，夫木者，農也，農者，民也，不順如叛，則命司徒誅其率、正矣，故曰金勝木。

Wood is the Minister of Agriculture. If the Minister of Agriculture does wrong, forms cliques and conspires together to obscure the ruler's clarity, expels and hides worthy scholars, destroys dukes and ministers, teaches the people extravagance, has guests visiting each other, does not encourage farm work, gambles and fights cocks, runs dogs and plays with horses, has no ritual between old and young, and large and small plunder one another, becoming bandits together, acting wantonly and breaking principle, then the Minister of the Masses executes him. Duke Huan of Qi was like this: he practiced hegemony and used the army, invaded Cai, Cai collapsed, then he attacked Chu, the men of Chu submitted, and thereby the Central States were pacified. Wood is the ruler's officer. Wood is agriculture, and agriculture is the people; if they are disobedient and like rebels, the Minister of the Masses is ordered to execute their ringleader, and things are corrected. So it is said that metal overcomes wood.

火者，司馬也，司馬為讒，反言易辭，以譖愬人，內離骨肉之親，外疏忠臣，賢聖旋亡，讒邪日昌，魯上大夫季孫是也；專權擅政，薄國威德，反以怠惡譖愬其賢臣，劫惑其君，孔子為魯司寇，據義行法，季孫自消，墮費郈城，兵甲有差。夫火者，大朝，有邪讒熒惑其君，執法誅之，執法者，水也，故曰水勝火。

Fire is the Minister of War. If the Minister of War slanders, speaking in reverse and with clever words to accuse people, inwardly he separates the affection of flesh and blood and outwardly he distances loyal ministers; the worthy and wise are destroyed in the blink of an eye, and slanderers and evil men flourish daily. Jisun, a senior grand master of Lu, was like this: he monopolized power and the state's awe and virtue grew thin, and he instead used the vice of idleness to accuse worthy ministers and coerced and deluded his ruler. When Confucius was Minister of Crime of Lu, he enforced the law according to righteousness, and Jisun shrank back and had the walls of Fei and Hou torn down, and arms and armor were regulated by grade. Fire is the great court; if there are wicked slanderers who bewilder their ruler, the enforcer of law executes them. The enforcer of law is water, so it is said that water overcomes fire.

土者，君之官也，其相司營，司營為神，主所為，皆曰可，主所言，皆曰善，順主指，聽從為比，進主所善，以快主意，導主以邪，陷主不義，大為宮室，多為臺榭，雕文刻鏤，五色成光，賦歛無度，以奪民財，多發繇役，以奪民時，作事無極，以奪民力，百姓愁苦，叛去其國，楚靈王是也；作乾溪之臺，三年不成，百姓罷弊而叛，及其身弒。夫土者，君之官也，君大奢侈，過度失禮，民叛矣，其民叛，其君窮矣，故曰木勝土。

Earth is the ruler's officer, and his chancellor is the Minister of Camps. If the Minister of Camps plays tricks and acts like a spirit, saying that whatever the ruler does is acceptable and whatever he says is good, and [a rare character lost in transcription] follows the ruler's intentions, obeying him and forming a clique, presenting what the ruler likes so as to please his heart, leading him by evil and making him fall into unrighteousness: building palaces extensively, making many terraces and pavilions, carving and engraving, with five colors shining, levying taxes without limit to seize the people's wealth, sending out many labor services to seize the people's time, doing things without limit to seize the people's strength, so that the common people are worried and bitter and turn away from their state. King Ling of Chu was like this: he built the Qianxi terrace, which was not finished in three years, the people were worn out and rebelled, and disaster fell on him and he was murdered. Earth is the ruler's officer. If the ruler is greatly extravagant and goes beyond ritual, the people rebel; when the people rebel, the ruler is impoverished. So it is said that wood overcomes earth.

金者，司徒也，司徒為賊，內得於君，外驕軍士，專權擅勢，誅殺無罪，侵伐暴虐，攻戰妄取，令不行，禁不止，將率不親，士卒不使，兵弱地削，令君有恥，則司馬誅之，楚殺其司徒得臣是也；得臣數戰破敵，內得於君，驕蹇不恤其下，卒不為使，當敵而弱，以危楚國，司馬誅之。金者，司徒，司徒弱不能使士眾，則司馬誅之，故曰火勝金。

Metal is the Minister of the Masses. If the Minister of the Masses acts as a thief and does harm: inwardly gaining the ruler's favor and outwardly being arrogant to the troops, monopolizing power and authority, executing the innocent, invading and attacking cruelly, fighting and seizing recklessly, so that orders are not carried out and prohibitions are not stopped, the generals are not close to their men, the soldiers do not obey, the army is weak and the land diminished, and the ruler is made to suffer disgrace, then the Minister of War executes him. Chu's killing of its Minister of the Masses, Dechen, is an example: Dechen won many battles and defeated enemies, gained the ruler's favor within, was arrogant and unyielding and did not care for his subordinates, the soldiers did not obey, and he was weak facing the enemy, so he endangered Chu, and the Minister of War executed him. Metal is the Minister of the Masses. If the Minister of the Masses is weak and cannot command the multitude, the Minister of War executes him. So it is said that fire overcomes metal.

水者，司寇也，司寇為亂，足恭小謹，巧言令色，聽謁受賂，阿黨不平，慢令急誅，誅殺無罪，則司營誅之，營蕩是也；為齊司寇，太公封於齊，問焉以治國之要，營蕩對曰：“任仁義而已。”太公曰：“任仁義奈何？”營蕩對曰：“仁者愛人，義者尊老。”太公曰：“愛人尊老奈何？”營蕩對曰：“愛人者，有子不食其力；尊老者，妻長而夫拜之。”太公曰：“寡人慾以仁義治齊，今子以仁義亂齊，寡人立而誅之，以定齊國。”夫水者，執法司寇也，執法附黨不平，依法刑人，則司營誅之，故曰土勝水。

Water is the Minister of Crime. If the Minister of Crime causes disorder: being excessively reverent and petty, using clever words and a pleasing look, listening to petitions and taking bribes, forming cliques that are not fair, laws and orders being lax while executions are hasty, executing the innocent, then the Minister of Camps executes him. Ying Dang was like this. He served as Minister of Crime of Qi when Taigong was enfeoffed in Qi, and Taigong asked him the main points of governing the state. Ying Dang answered: 'Just use benevolence and righteousness.' Taigong said: 'What is it to use benevolence and righteousness?' Ying Dang answered: 'Benevolence is loving people and righteousness is honoring the old.' Taigong said: 'What is it to love people and honor the old?' Ying Dang answered: 'One who loves people, even if he has a son, does not eat his labor; one who honors the old, if his wife is older, the husband bows to her.' Taigong said: 'I wish to govern Qi with benevolence and righteousness, but now you are throwing Qi into disorder with benevolence and righteousness. I will execute you at once to bring peace to Qi.' Water is the enforcer of law and Minister of Crime. If the enforcer of law attaches to cliques and is not fair, and punishes people according to law, then the Minister of Camps executes him. So it is said that earth overcomes water.

木者春，生之性，農之本也。勸農事，無奪民時，使民歲不過三日，行什一之稅，進經術之士，挺群禁，出輕系，去稽留，除桎梏，開門闔，通障塞，恩及草木，則樹木華美，而朱草生，恩及鱗蟲，則魚大為，鱣鯨不見，群龍下。如人君出入不時，走狗試馬，馳騁不反宮室，好淫樂，飲酒沈琨，縱恣不顧政治，事多發役，以奪民時，作謀增稅，以奪民財，民病疥搔溫體，足胻痛，咎及於木，則茂木枯槁，工匠之輪多傷敗，毒水渰群，漉陂如漁，咎及鱗蟲，則魚不為，群龍深藏，鯨出現。

Wood is spring, the nature of giving birth, the root of agriculture. Encourage farm work and do not seize the people's time, make the people do labor service for no more than three days in a year, collect a tenth in tax, advance scholars of the classics, relax all prohibitions, release those held for light offenses, remove delays, take off fetters and shackles, open the gates, clear obstructions, and extend favor to grass and trees, and then the trees will be beautiful and the red grass will grow; extend favor to scaly creatures, and fish will multiply greatly, the sturgeon and whale will not appear, and flocks of dragons will descend. If the ruler goes out and in at the wrong times, runs dogs and tries horses, gallops without returning to the palace, loves lewd pleasure, drinks and indulges (the original has 'shen kun', where 'kun' is probably 'mian'), is unrestrained and ignores government, has many affairs and sends out labor to seize the people's time, plots to raise taxes to seize the people's wealth, so that the people suffer from scabs and itching, fever in the body and pain in the lower legs, then the blame falls on wood: luxuriant trees wither, the wheels made by craftsmen are often damaged, poisonous water floods the many things, and pools and ponds are drained to catch fish; the blame falls on scaly creatures, and fish do not multiply, flocks of dragons hide deep, and whales appear.

火者夏，成長，本朝也。舉賢良，進茂才，官得其能，任得其力，賞有功，封有德，出貨財，振睏乏，正封疆，使四方。恩及於火，則火順人，而甘露降；恩及羽蟲，則飛鳥大為，黃鵠出見，鳳凰翔。如人君惑於讒邪，內離骨肉，外疏忠臣，至殺世子，誅殺不辜，逐忠臣，以妾為妻，棄法令，婦妾為政，賜予不當，則民病血，壅腫，目不明。咎及於火，則大旱，必有火災，摘巢探鷇，咎及羽蟲，則飛鳥不為，冬應不來，梟鴟群鳴，鳳凰高翔。

Fire is summer, growing, and is the court. Recommend the worthy and good, advance the talented, let offices obtain their ability and appointments obtain their strength, reward the meritorious and enfeoff the virtuous, bring out goods and wealth to relieve the poor, set the borders right, and send envoys to the four quarters. When favor extends to fire, fire obeys people and sweet dew falls; when favor extends to feathered creatures, flying birds multiply greatly, yellow cranes appear, and phoenixes fly. If the ruler is deluded by slanderers and evil men, inwardly separates flesh and blood and outwardly distances loyal ministers, to the point of killing the crown prince, executing the innocent, banishing loyal ministers, treating concubines as wives, abandoning laws, concubines governing, and giving improper gifts, then the people suffer blood disease, swelling, and unclear eyes. The blame falls on fire, and there is great drought, and fire disasters are sure to come; if nests are torn down and fledglings taken, the blame falls on feathered creatures, so flying birds do not multiply, the winter response does not come, owls cry in flocks, and phoenixes fly high and far away.

土者夏中，成熟百種，君之官，循宮室之制，謹夫婦之別，加親戚之恩，恩及於土，則五穀成而嘉禾興，恩及?蟲，則百姓親附，城郭充實，賢聖皆頡，仙人降。如人君好淫佚，妻妾過度，犯親戚，侮父兄，欺罔百姓，大為臺榭，五色成光，雕文刻鏤，則民病心腹宛黃，舌爛痛，咎及於土，則五穀不成，暴虐妄誅，咎及?蟲，?蟲不為，百姓叛去，賢聖放亡。

Earth is mid-summer, which makes the hundred kinds ripen, and is the ruler's officer. Follow the rules for palaces and houses, be careful about the distinction between husband and wife, and increase the favor shown to kin. When favor extends to earth, the five grains are completed and fine grain arises; when favor extends to naked creatures (the original character is rendered as a question mark, and is to be read as 'luo'), the people are close and loyal, city walls are full, worthy sages all come, and immortals descend. If the ruler likes licentiousness, has wives and concubines beyond measure, offends kin, insults his father and elder brothers, deceives the people, builds terraces and pavilions on a large scale, with five colors shining and carving and engraving, then the people suffer depression and yellowing in the heart and abdomen, and ulcerated and painful tongues. The blame falls on earth, and the five grains are not completed; if he is cruel and recklessly executes people, the blame falls on naked creatures, and naked creatures do not multiply, the people rebel and leave, and worthy sages are banished and flee.

金者秋，殺氣之始也。建立旗鼓、杖把旄鉞，以誅賊殘，禁暴虐，安集，故動眾興師，必應義理，出則祠兵，入則振旅，以閒習之，因於搜狩，存不忘亡，安不忘危，修城郭，繕牆垣，審群禁，飭兵甲，警百官，誅不法，恩及於金石，則涼風出，恩及於毛蟲，則走獸大為，麒麟至。如人君好戰，侵陵諸侯，貪城邑之賂，輕百姓之命，則民病喉咳嗽，筋攣，鼻鼽塞，咎及於金，則鑄化凝滯，凍堅不成，四面張罔，焚林而獵，咎及毛蟲，則走獸不為，白虎妄搏，麒麟遠去。

Metal is autumn, the beginning of killing qi. Set up flags and drums, hold the yak-tail banner and battle-axe, to execute cruel brigands, stop violence, and settle the gathered. So raising the army and mobilizing the multitude must accord with righteousness and principle: when going out, sacrifice to the troops; when returning, reorganize the ranks, to practice, using the hunt as a means. While surviving do not forget perishing, while safe do not forget danger, repair the city walls, mend the walls and enclosures, examine all prohibitions, put the arms and armor in order, warn the hundred officials, and execute the lawless. When favor extends to metal and stone, cool winds come out; when favor extends to furred creatures, running beasts multiply greatly and the qilin arrives. If the ruler likes war, invades and bullies the lords, covets the bribes of cities and takes lightly the lives of the people, then the people suffer throat coughing, cramps in the sinews, and nasal congestion. The blame falls on metal, so casting and transformation stall, and freezing is firm but nothing is completed; nets are stretched on four sides and forests are burned to hunt, and the blame falls on furred creatures, so running beasts do not multiply, the white tiger attacks wantonly, and the qilin leaves far away.

水者冬，藏至陰也，宗廟祭祀之始，敬四時之祭，禘祫昭穆之序，天子祭天，諸侯祭土，閉門閭，大搜索，斷刑罰，執當罪，飭關梁，禁外徙，恩及於水，則醴泉出，恩及介蟲，則黿鼉大為，靈龜出。如人君簡宗廟，不禱祀，廢祭祀，執法不順，逆天時，則民病流腫、水張、痿痺、孔竅不通，咎及於水，霧氣冥冥，必有大水，水為民害，咎及介蟲，則龜深藏，黿鼉呴。

Water is winter, storing, the utmost yin, and the beginning of ancestral temple sacrifice. Reverently perform the sacrifices of the four seasons and the order of the di and xia sacrifices and the zhao and mu positions: the Son of Heaven sacrifices to Heaven, and the lords sacrifice to the earth. Close the gates and lanes, search broadly, decide punishments, arrest those who deserve penalty, put the passes and bridges in order, and forbid moving out. When favor extends to water, sweet springs come out; when favor extends to shelled creatures, giant turtles and alligators multiply greatly and the spirit tortoise appears. If the ruler is lax toward the ancestral temple, does not pray or sacrifice, abandons sacrifices, enforces law improperly, or goes against Heaven's seasons, then the people suffer flowing swelling, edema, wasting and numbness, and blocked orifices. The blame falls on water, with misty and dark vapors, there will surely be a great flood, and the water will become a harm to the people; the blame falls on shelled creatures, so the tortoise hides deep and the giant turtles and alligators cry out.

日冬至七十二日，木用事，其氣燥瘻而青，七十二日，火用事，其氣慘陽而赤；七十二日，土用事，其氣溼瘻而黃；七十二日，金用事，其氣慘淡而白；七十二日，水用事，其氣清寒而黑；七十二日，復得木。木用事，則行柔惠，挺群禁，至於立春，出輕系，去稽留，除桎梏，開門闔，通障塞，存幼孤，矜寡獨，無伐木。火用事，則正封疆，循田疇，至於立夏，舉賢良，封有德，賞有功，出使四方，無縱火。土用事，則養長老，存幼孤，矜寡獨，賜孝弟，施恩澤，無興土功。金用事，則修城郭，繕牆垣，審群禁，飭甲兵，警百官，誅不法，存長老，無焚金石。水用事，則閉門閭，大搜索，斷刑罰，執當罪，飭關梁，禁外徙，無決堤。

From the winter solstice for seventy-two days, wood is in command, and its qi is dry and turbid (the original has 'zao lou', where 'lou' is an error for 'zhuo', turbid) and green; for seventy-two days, fire is in command, and its qi is bleak yang and red; for seventy-two days, earth is in command, and its qi is damp and turbid and yellow; for seventy-two days, metal is in command, and its qi is bleak and pale and white; for seventy-two days, water is in command, and its qi is clear and cold and black; for seventy-two days, wood is obtained again. When wood is in command, practice gentle kindness, relax all prohibitions, and when spring begins, release those held for light offenses, remove delays, take off fetters and shackles, open the gates, clear obstructions, pity orphans and the young, show compassion for widows and the lonely, and do not cut down trees. When fire is in command, set the borders right and inspect the fields, and when summer begins, recommend the worthy and good, enfeoff the virtuous, reward the meritorious, send envoys to the four quarters, and do not set fires. When earth is in command, support the elders, pity orphans and the young, show compassion for widows and the lonely, reward the filial and fraternal, extend grace and favor, and do not begin earthworks. When metal is in command, repair the city walls, mend the walls and enclosures, examine all prohibitions, put arms and armor in order, warn the hundred officials, execute the lawless, pity the elders, and do not burn metal and stone. When water is in command, close the gates and lanes, search broadly, decide punishments, arrest those who deserve penalty, put the passes and bridges in order, forbid moving out, and do not breach dikes and embankments.

火幹木，蟄蟲蚤出，蚿雷蚤行；土幹木，胎夭卵毈，鳥蟲多傷；金幹木，有兵；水乾木，春下霜。

When fire interferes with wood, hibernating insects come out early, and earthworms and thunder move early; when earth interferes with wood, fetuses die young, eggs do not hatch, and birds and insects are often injured; when metal interferes with wood, there are military affairs; when water interferes with wood, frost falls in spring.

土幹火，則多雷；金幹火，草木夷；水乾火，夏雹；木幹火，則地動。

When earth interferes with fire, there is much thunder; when metal interferes with fire, grasses and trees are wounded; when water interferes with fire, hail falls in summer; when wood interferes with fire, the ground shakes.

金乾土，則五穀傷有殃；水乾土，夏寒雨霜；木乾土，?蟲不為；火乾土，則大旱。

When metal interferes with earth, the five grains are injured and suffer calamity; when water interferes with earth, summer is cold and frost falls; when wood interferes with earth, naked creatures do not multiply; when fire interferes with earth, there is great drought.

水乾金，則魚不為；木幹金，則草木再生；火幹金，則草木秋榮；土幹金，五穀不成。

When water interferes with metal, fish do not multiply; when wood interferes with metal, grass and trees grow again; when fire interferes with metal, grass and trees bloom in autumn; when earth interferes with metal, the five grains are not completed.

木幹水，冬蟄不藏；土幹水，則蟄蟲冬出；火幹水，則星墜；金幹水，則冬大寒。

When wood interferes with water, winter hibernators do not hide away; when earth interferes with water, hibernating insects come out in winter; when fire interferes with water, stars fall; when metal interferes with water, winter is very cold.

五行變至，當救之以德，施之天下，則咎除；不救以德，不出三年，天當雨石。木有變，春凋秋榮，秋木在，春多雨，此繇役眾，賦歛重，百姓貧窮叛去，道多飢人；救之者，省繇役，薄賦歛，出倉谷，振困窮矣。火有變，冬溫夏寒，此王者不明，善者不賞，惡者不絀，不肖在位，賢者伏匿，則寒暑失序，而民疾疫；救之者，舉賢良，賞有功，封有德。土有變，大風至，五穀傷，此不信仁賢，不敬父兄，淫泆無度，宮室榮；救之者，省宮室，去雕文，舉孝悌，恤黎元。金有變，畢昴為回三覆，有武，多兵，多盜寇，此棄義貪財，輕民命，重貨賂，百姓趣利，多奸軌；救之者，舉廉潔，立正直，隱武行文，束甲械。水有變，冬溼多霧，春夏雨雹，此法令緩，刑罰不行；救之者，憂囹圄，案奸宄，誅有罪，五日。

When a change of the five phases arrives, it should be remedied with virtue and carried out across the world, and then the blame is removed; if it is not remedied with virtue, within three years Heaven will rain stones. If wood changes, withering in spring and flourishing in autumn, with trees still standing in autumn and much rain in spring, this is because labor service is heavy and taxes burdensome, the people are poor and rebellious, and there are many hungry people on the roads. The way to remedy it is to reduce labor services, lighten taxes, bring out granary grain, and relieve the poor. If fire changes, warm in winter and cold in summer, this is because the true king is not clear-sighted, does not reward the good or dismiss the evil, the unworthy are in office and the worthy hide away, so cold and heat lose their order and the people have epidemics. The way to remedy it is to recommend the worthy and good, reward the meritorious, and enfeoff the virtuous. If earth changes, with great wind coming and the five grains injured, this is because he does not trust the benevolent and worthy, does not respect his father and elder brothers, is licentious beyond measure, and his palaces are showy. The way to remedy it is to reduce palaces, remove carving, recommend the filial and fraternal, and show concern for the common people. If metal changes, with the Bi and Mao constellations turning three times, there will be military affairs, many troops and many bandits, this is because righteousness is abandoned, wealth is coveted, the people's lives are lightly regarded, goods and bribes are heavily regarded, the people chase profit, and there is much treachery. The way to remedy it is to recommend the honest, set up the upright, hide military affairs and practice civil virtue, and put away arms and armor. If water changes, with winter wet and foggy and hail in spring and summer, this is because laws and orders are lax and punishments are not carried out. The way to remedy it is to be concerned about prisons, investigate treachery and crime, execute the guilty, [a rare character lost in transcription] five days.

王者與臣無禮，貌不肅敬，則木不曲直，而夏多暴風，風者，木之氣也，其音角也，故應之以暴風。王者言不從，則金不從革，而秋多霹灤，霹灤者，金氣也，其音商也，故應之以霹灤。王者視不明，則火不炎上，而秋多電，電者，火氣也，其音徵也，故應之以電。王者聽不聰，則水不潤下，而春夏多暴雨，雨者，水氣也，其音羽也，故應之以暴雨。王者心不能容，則稼穡不成，而秋多雷，雷者，土氣也，其音宮也，故應之以雷。

When a true king lacks ritual toward his ministers and his bearing is not solemn and reverent, then Wood cannot bend and straighten, and summer has many violent winds. Wind is the qi of Wood, whose tone is jue, and so violent winds answer to it. When the true king's words are not followed, then Metal does not follow its change, and autumn has many thunderclaps. Thunderclap is the qi of Metal, whose tone is shang, and so thunderclaps answer to it. When the true king's sight is not clear, then Fire does not flame upward, and autumn has much lightning. Lightning is the qi of Fire, whose tone is zhi, and so lightning answers to it. When the true king's hearing is not keen, then Water does not moisten downward, and spring and summer have many violent rains. Rain is the qi of Water, whose tone is yu, and so violent rain answers to it. When the true king's mind cannot embrace, then sowing and reaping do not succeed, and autumn has much rolling thunder. Thunder is the qi of Earth, whose tone is gong, and so thunder answers to it.

五事：一曰貌，二曰言，三曰視，四曰聽，五曰思，何謂也？夫五事者，人之所受命於天也，而王者所修而治民也，故王者為民，治則不可以不明，準繩不可以不正。王者貌曰恭，恭者，敬也；言曰從，從者，可從；視曰明，明者，知賢不肖，分明黑白也；聽曰聰，聰者，能聞事而審其意也；思曰容，容者，言無不容。恭作肅，從作乂，明作哲，聰作謀，容作聖。何謂也？恭作肅，言王者誠能內有恭敬之姿，而天下莫不肅矣。從作乂，言王者言可從，明正從行，而天下治矣。明作哲，哲者，知也，王者明，則賢者進，不肖者退，天下知善而勸之，知惡而恥之矣。聰作謀，謀者，謀事也，王者聰，則聞事與臣下謀之，故事無失謀矣。容作聖，聖者，設也，王者心寬大無不容，則聖能施設，事各得其宜也。

The Five Affairs: the first is called bearing, the second speech, the third sight, the fourth hearing, the fifth thought; what does this mean? The Five Affairs are the mandate that people receive from Heaven, and what the true king cultivates in order to govern the people. So the true king, acting for the people, cannot but be clear in governing, and the standard cannot but be upright. The true king's bearing is called courtesy, and courtesy is reverence; speech is called compliance, and compliance means being able to be followed; sight is called clarity, and clarity is knowing the worthy from the unworthy and distinguishing black from white; hearing is called acuity, and acuity is being able to hear matters and examine their meaning; thought is called capaciousness, and capaciousness is that in speaking there is nothing he cannot take in. Courtesy produces solemnity, compliance produces order, clarity produces wisdom, acuity produces counsel, and capaciousness produces sagehood. What does this mean? Courtesy producing solemnity means that if the true king really has a reverent bearing within, there is no one in the world who is not solemn. Compliance producing order means that if the true king's words can be followed, are clear and upright, and are carried out accordingly, the world is governed. Clarity producing wisdom: wisdom is knowing; if the true king is clear, then the worthy are advanced and employed and the unworthy dismissed, and the world knows good and is encouraged, and knows evil and is ashamed. Acuity producing counsel: counsel is planning affairs; if the true king is acute, then he hears of affairs and plans with his ministers, and so there is no failure of planning in affairs. Capaciousness producing sagehood: sagehood is arranging and applying; if the true king's mind is broad and there is nothing he cannot embrace, then his sagehood can arrange and apply, and affairs each get what is fitting.

王者能敬則肅，肅則春氣得，故肅者主春。春，陽氣微，萬物柔易移，弱可化。於時陰氣為賊，故王者欽欽不以議陰事，然後萬物遂生，而木可曲直也。春行秋政，則草木凋；行冬政，則雪；行夏政，則殺。春失政則。

If the true king can be reverent, he is solemn, and when solemn he obtains the qi of spring, and so solemnity governs spring. In spring, the yang qi is faint, and the ten thousand things are tender and easily moved, weak and able to be transformed. At this time yin qi acts as a thief, and so the true king is respectful and does not use yin affairs for deliberation, and then the ten thousand things grow smoothly and Wood can bend and straighten. If spring carries out the governance of autumn, grass and trees wither; if it carries out the governance of winter, snow falls; if it carries out the governance of summer, killing occurs. If spring loses its governance then, (the original text probably has missing words here.)

王者能治則義立，義立則秋氣得，故乂者主秋。秋氣始殺，王者行小刑罰，民不犯則禮義成。於時陽氣為賊，故王者輔以官牧之事，然後萬物成熟，秋，草木不榮華，金從革也。秋行春政，則華；行夏政，則喬；行冬政，則落。秋失政，則春大風不解，雷不發聲。

If the true king can govern, righteousness is established, and when righteousness is established he obtains the qi of autumn, and so order governs autumn. The qi of autumn begins to kill, and the true king carries out minor punishments, and if the people do not offend, ritual and righteousness are accomplished. At this time yang qi acts as a thief, and so the true king assists with the affairs of official herding, and then the ten thousand things ripen. In autumn, grass and trees do not flower, and Metal follows its change. If autumn carries out the governance of spring, they flower; if it carries out the governance of summer, they grow tall; if it carries out the governance of winter, they fall away. If autumn loses its governance, then spring's great winds do not subside and thunder does not sound.

王者能知，則知善惡，知善惡，則夏氣得，故哲者主夏。夏，陽氣始盛，萬物兆長，王者不揜明，則道不退塞。而夏至之後，大暑隆，萬物茂育懷任，王者恐明不知賢不肖，分明白黑，於時，寒為賊，故王者輔以賞賜之事，然後夏草木不霜，火炎上也。夏行春政，則風行；秋政，則水行；冬政，則落。夏失政，則冬不凍在，五穀不藏，大寒不解。

If the true king can know, he knows good and evil; knowing good and evil, he obtains the qi of summer, and so wisdom governs summer. In summer, yang qi begins to flourish and the ten thousand things start to grow. If the true king does not shade his clarity, the Way is not withdrawn or blocked. After the summer solstice, great heat is at its height, and the ten thousand things flourish and conceive; the true king may fear that though he is clear, he may not know worthy from unworthy and distinguish black from white. At this time cold acts as a thief, and so the true king assists with the affairs of rewards and gifts, and then in summer grass and trees do not have frost and Fire flames upward. If summer carries out the governance of spring, the wind blows; if it carries out the governance of autumn, water flows; if it carries out the governance of winter, they fall away. If summer loses its governance, then in winter ice does not form, the five grains are not stored, and the great cold does not break.

王者無失謀，然後冬氣得，故謀者主冬。冬，陰氣始盛，草未必死，王者能聞事審謀慮之，則不侵伐，不侵伐且殺，則死者不恨，生者不怨。冬日至之後，大寒降，萬物藏於下，於時，暑為賊，故王者輔之以急斷之事，以水潤下也。冬行春政，則蒸；行夏政，則雷；行秋政，則旱，冬失政，則夏草木不實，霜，五穀疾枯。

If the true king has no failure of planning, then he obtains the qi of winter, and so counsel governs winter. In winter, yin qi begins to flourish, and grass and trees do not necessarily die. If the true king can hear of affairs and examine plans, he will not invade or attack; not invading and attacking and also killing, the dead will not resent and the living will not complain. After the winter solstice, great cold descends and the ten thousand things are stored below. At this time heat acts as a thief, and so the true king assists with affairs of swift decision, and Water moistens downward. If winter carries out the governance of spring, it steams and stagnates; if it carries out the governance of summer, there is thunder; if it carries out the governance of autumn, there is drought. If winter loses its governance, then in summer grass and trees do not bear fruit, frost falls, and the five grains are blighted and wither.

人之言：醞去煙，鴟羽去眯，慈石取鐵，頸金取火，蠶珥絲於室，而弦絕於堂，禾實於野，而粟缺於倉，蕪荑生於燕，橘枳死於荊，此十物者，皆奇而可怪，非人所意也。夫非人所意而然，既已有之矣，或者吉凶禍福、利不利之所從生，無有奇怪，非人所意如是者乎，此等可畏也。孔子曰：“君子有三畏：畏天命，畏大人，畏聖人之言。”彼豈無傷害於人，如孔子徒畏之哉！以此見天之不可不畏敬，猶主上之不可不謹事，不謹事主，其禍來至顯，不畏敬天，其殃來至闇，闇者不見其端，若自然也，故曰：堂堂如天殃。言不必立校，默而無聲，潛而無形也。由是觀之，天殃與主罰所以別者，闇與顯耳，不然其來逮人，殆無以異，孔子同之，俱言可畏也。天地神明之心，與人事成敗之真，固莫之能見也，唯聖人能見之，聖人者，見人之所不見者也，故聖人之言亦可畏也，奈何如廢郊禮？郊禮者，人所最甚重也，廢聖人所最甚重，而吉凶利害在於冥冥不可得見之中，雖已多受其病，何從知之！故曰：問聖人者，問其所為，而無問其所以為也，問其所以為，終弗能見，不如勿問，問為而為之，所不為而勿為，是與聖人同實也，何過之有！詩云：“不騫不忘，率由舊章。”舊章者，先聖人之故文章也，率由各，有修從之也，此言先聖人之故文章者，雖不能深見而詳知其則，猶不知其美譽之功矣。今郊事天之義，此聖人故，故古之聖王，文章之最重者也，前世王莫不從重粟精奉之，以事上天，至於秦，而獨闕然廢之，一何不率由舊章之大甚也。天者，百神之大君也，事天不備，雖百神猶無益也，何以言其然也，祭而地神者，春秋譏之，孔子曰：“獲罪於天，無所禱也。”是其法也。故未見秦國致天福如周國也，詩云：“唯此文王，小心翼翼，昭事上帝，允懷多福。

People say: wine lees can remove smoke, owl feathers can remove dust that makes the eyes squint, the lodestone draws iron, the neck-metal mirror draws fire, silkworms spin in the room yet the strings in the hall are cut, grain bears fruit in the field yet the grain in the granary is lacking, the wuyi grows in Yan, and tangerine and trifoliate orange die in Jing. These ten things are all strange and remarkable, not what people would expect. Since things not expected by people are nevertheless like this, perhaps the origins of auspicious and inauspicious, calamity and blessing, benefit and harm are also strange, not as people expect, like this? This kind of thing is to be feared. Confucius said: "The gentleman has three fears: he fears the mandate of Heaven, he fears great men, and he fears the words of the sages." Do these things do harm to people, such that Confucius feared them in vain? From this we see that Heaven must be revered, just as a ruler must be served with care. If one does not serve a ruler with care, the calamity arrives with great clarity; if one does not revere Heaven, the misfortune arrives in great obscurity. The obscure cannot be seen in its beginnings, as if natural. Therefore it is said: openly as Heaven's misfortune. This says that it need not be verified at once, silent without sound and hidden without form. From this, the difference between Heaven's misfortune and the ruler's punishment is only obscurity and clarity; otherwise, when they arrive on a person, there is hardly any difference. Confucius saw them as the same, and said both are to be feared. The heart of heaven, earth, and the spirits, and the truth of success and failure in human affairs, indeed no one can see, and only the sages can see. A sage is one who sees what people cannot see, and so the sage's words too are to be feared. How could the suburban sacrifice be abandoned? The suburban sacrifice is what people value most. To abandon what the sages value most, while good and ill fortune and benefit and harm lie in the dark and cannot be seen, even if one has already suffered much from the illness, how would one know? So it is said: ask the sages what they did, and do not ask the reason why they did it. If you ask the reason why, in the end you cannot see it, so it is better not to ask. Ask what they did and do it, and what they did not do, do not do; then you are the same in substance as the sages, and what fault is there! The Greater Odes, "Jia Le," say: "Not diminished, not forgotten, following the old statutes." The old statutes are the old texts of the former sages. Following them, each cultivates and follows. This is to say that the old texts of the former sages, even if one cannot deeply see and know their rules in detail, still do not know the merit of its fair repute. Now to serve Heaven with the suburban sacrifice is the established practice of the sages, and so it is the weightiest in the writings of the ancient sage kings. None of the earlier kings failed to attach importance to it and serve Heaven with fine grain; but when it came to Qin, it alone was abandoned entirely, how extremely contrary to following the old statutes. Heaven is the great lord of the hundred spirits. If serving Heaven is not complete, even the hundred spirits are of no benefit. On what ground is this said? Sacrificing to the spirits of the earth is criticized in the Spring and Autumn Annals. Confucius said: "One who offends Heaven has none to pray to." This is that rule. So I have not seen Qin attract Heaven's blessings as Zhou did. The Greater Odes, "Da Ming," say: "Only this King Wen, cautious and careful, clearly served the Lord on High, sincerely drawing many blessings.

”多福者，非謂人也，事功也，謂天之所福也，傳曰：周國子多賢蕃殖，至於駢孕男者四，四產而得八男，皆君子俊雄也，此天之所以興周國也，非周國之所能為也。今秦與周俱得為天子，而所以事天者異於周，以郊為百神始，始入歲首，必以正月上辛日先享天，乃敢於地，先貴之義也，夫歲先之，與歲弗行也，相去遠矣。天下福若無可怪者，然所以久弗行者，非灼灼見其當而故弗行也，典禮之官常嫌疑莫能昭昭明其當也，今切以為其當與不當，可內反於心而定也。堯謂舜曰：“天之歷數在爾躬。”言察身以知天也，今身有子，庸不欲其有子禮也！聖人正名，名不虛生，天子者，則天之子也，以身度天，獨何為不欲其子之有子禮也！今為其天子，而闕然無祭於天，天何必善之！所聞曰：天下和平，則災害不生。今災害生，見天下未和平也，天下所未和平者，天子之教化不政也。詩曰：“有覺德行，四國順之。”覺者，著也，王者有明著之德行於世，則四方莫不響應風化，善於彼矣。故曰：悅於慶賞，嚴於刑罰，疾於法令。

" By "many blessings" is meant not people but achievements, the blessings sent down by Heaven. The tradition says: the descendants of Zhou were often worthy and multiplied, so that four times a birth produced two boys, and in four births there were eight boys, all gentlemen, outstanding and heroic. This is how Heaven raised up Zhou, not something Zhou could do. Now Qin and Zhou both became Sons of Heaven, but how they served Heaven was different from Zhou. They made the suburban sacrifice the beginning of the hundred spirits' sacrifices, entering the new year and without fail in the first month on the first xin day, first making offerings to Heaven, and only then daring to extend to Earth, which is the principle of honoring what is first. To do this first each year versus not doing it for a year is very different. The blessings of the world seem not to be anything strange, yet the reason it has long gone undone is not that they saw clearly that it was proper and deliberately did not do it, but that the officials of ritual were often doubtful and could not clearly see what is proper. Now to truly judge whether it is proper or not, one can return to one's own heart to settle it. Yao said to Shun: "The calendrical numbers of Heaven are in your person." This means examining one's own self to know Heaven. Now if one has a son of one's own, would one not wish him to have the ritual of a son! The sages rectified names, and names do not arise from nothing. The Son of Heaven is the son of Heaven. Measuring Heaven by one's own self, why would one alone not think of one's own son's having the ritual of a son! Now to be its Son of Heaven but entirely lack sacrifice to Heaven, why should Heaven treat him well? What is heard is: when the world is at peace, calamities do not arise. Now calamities arise, which shows that the world is not yet at peace. The reason the world is not at peace is that the Son of Heaven's teaching has not been set right. The Greater Odes, "Yi," say: "With upright and manifest virtue, the four states comply." "Jue" means manifest. If a true king has manifest virtue in the world, then none in the four quarters fail to respond to his influence and turn to goodness there. So it is said: more pleasing than rewards, more severe than punishments, more urgent than laws and decrees.

郊義：春秋之法，王者歲一祭天於郊，四祭於宗廟，宗廟因於四時之易，郊因於新歲之初，聖人有以起之，其以祭，不可不親也。天者，百神之君也，王者之所最尊也，以最尊天之故，故易始歲更紀，即以其初郊，郊必以正月上辛者，言以所最尊首一歲之事，每更紀者，以郊郊祭首之，先貴之義，尊天之道也。

The meaning of the suburban sacrifice: by the rule of the Spring and Autumn Annals, the true king sacrifices to Heaven once a year at the suburban altar and four times in the ancestral temple. The ancestral temple follows the changes of the four seasons, and the suburban sacrifice follows the beginning of the new year. The sages had reasons for raising it, and for the sacrifice it must be done in person. Heaven is the lord of the hundred spirits and what the true king honors most. Because of honoring Heaven most, he changes the beginning of the year and renews the calendar, and uses that beginning for the suburban sacrifice. The suburban sacrifice must be on the first xin day of the first month, meaning that he takes what he honors most as the start of the year's affairs. Each time the calendar is renewed, to begin with the suburban sacrifice is the principle of honoring what is first and the Way of venerating Heaven.

春秋之義，國有大喪者，止宗廟之祭，而不止郊祭，不敢以父母之喪廢事天地之禮也。父母之喪，至哀痛悲苦也，尚不敢廢郊也，庸足以廢郊者，故其在禮亦曰：喪者不祭，唯祭天為越喪而行事。夫古之畏敬天而重天郊如此甚也，今群臣學士不探察曰：“萬民多貧，或頗飢寒，足郊乎！”是何言之誤，天子父母事天，而子孫畜萬民，民未遍飽，無用祭天者，是猶子孫未得食，無用食父母也，言莫逆於是，是其去禮遠也。先貴而後賤，庸貴於天子，天子號天之子也，奈何受為天子之號，而無天子之禮，天子不可不祭天也，無異人之不可以不食父，為人子而不事父者，天下莫能以為可，今為天之子而不事天，何以異是。是故天子每至歲首，必先郊祭以享天，乃敢為地，行子禮也；每將興師，必先郊祭以告天，乃敢征伐，行子道也。文王受命而王天下，先郊乃敢行事，而興師伐崇，其詩曰：“芃芃棫樸，薪之槱之。濟濟闢王，左右趨之。濟濟闢王，左右奉璋。奉璋峨峨，髦士攸宜。”此郊辭也。其下曰：“淠彼涇舟，烝徒橶之。周王於邁，六師及之。”此伐辭也。其下曰：“文王受命，有此武功，既伐於崇，作邑於豐。”以此辭者，見文王受命則郊，郊乃伐崇，伐崇之時，民何處央乎！

The meaning of the Spring and Autumn Annals: when a state has a great mourning, it halts the sacrifices in the ancestral temple, but does not halt the suburban sacrifice, not daring to use the mourning of parents to abandon the ritual of serving Heaven and Earth. The mourning of parents is grief and anguish to the utmost, and yet one does not dare abandon the suburban sacrifice; what could be enough to abandon it? So the rites also say: a person in mourning does not sacrifice, and only the sacrifice to Heaven goes on despite mourning. The ancients revered Heaven and valued the suburban sacrifice this deeply. Now the ministers and scholars without investigating say: "The ten thousand people are mostly poor, and some are quite hungry and cold; is it fitting to hold the suburban sacrifice?" How mistaken these words are. The Son of Heaven serves Heaven as a parent and nurtures the ten thousand people as children and grandchildren. If the people have not yet all been fed, one need not sacrifice to Heaven; this is like saying that if the children and grandchildren have not yet had food, one need not feed one's parents; no words are more contrary than these, and they are very far from ritual. Honoring first and the lowly after, is there anyone more honored than the Son of Heaven? The title "Son of Heaven" means son of Heaven; how can one receive the title of Son of Heaven and not have the ritual of the Son of Heaven? The Son of Heaven cannot fail to sacrifice to Heaven, no differently than a person cannot fail to feed his father. If one is a son and does not serve his father, no one in the world could consider that acceptable; now to be the son of Heaven and not serve Heaven, how is this different? For this reason, every time at the beginning of the year the Son of Heaven must first make the suburban sacrifice to offer to Heaven, and only then dare to do so for Earth; this is to follow the ritual of a son. Every time he is about to raise an army, he must first make the suburban sacrifice to report to Heaven, and only then dare to campaign; this is to follow the way of a son. King Wen received the mandate and became king of the world; first he made the suburban sacrifice and only then dared to act, and he raised an army and attacked Chong. The ode says: "The oak and the pu tree flourish, cut down and piled up. The dignified king, left and right hasten to him. The dignified king, left and right carry the jade zhang. Carrying the zhang they are solemn, and the outstanding men are fitting." This is the words of the suburban sacrifice. Below it says: "That boat on the Jing floats, and the many row it with oars. The king of Zhou goes forth, and the six armies follow." This is the words of the campaign. Below that it says: "King Wen received the mandate; he had this martial deed; having attacked Chong, he built a city at Feng." From these words we see that when King Wen received the mandate he made the suburban sacrifice, and only after the sacrifice did he attack Chong. At the time of attacking Chong, how could the people have suffered disaster!

古者歲四祭，四祭者，因四時之生庸而祭其先祖父母也。故春曰祠，夏曰礿，秋曰嘗，冬曰蒸，此言不失其時以奉祭先祖也，過時不祭，則失為人子之道也。祠者，以正月始食韭也，礿者，以四月食麥也，嘗者，以七月嘗黍稷也，蒸者，以十月進初稻也，此天之經也，地之義也，孝子孝婦緣天之時，因地之利，地之菜茹瓜果，藝之稻麥黍稷，菜生谷熟，永思吉日，供具祭物，齋戒沐浴，潔清致敬，祀其先祖父母，孝子孝婦不使時過已，處之以愛敬，行之以恭讓，亦殆免於罪矣。

In ancient times there were four sacrifices a year. The four sacrifices were made with the produce of the four seasons to sacrifice to forebears and parents. So spring is called ci, summer yue, autumn chang, and winter zheng. This means not losing the season in offering sacrifices to the ancestors. To pass the season and not sacrifice is to lose the way of a son. The ci is when the first chives of the first month are eaten; the yue is eating wheat in the fourth month; the chang is tasting millet in the seventh month; the zheng is offering the new rice in the tenth month. This is the constant of Heaven and the rightness of Earth. The filial son and filial daughter-in-law follow Heaven's seasons and rely on Earth's benefits: the vegetables, gourds, and fruits of the earth, the planted rice, wheat, millet, and sorghum; as the vegetables grow and the grain ripens, they always think of an auspicious day, prepare the offerings, fast and bathe, purify themselves and show reverence, and sacrifice to their ancestors and parents. The filial son and daughter-in-law do not let the season pass them by, treat each other with love and respect, and act with courtesy and deference, and so may nearly be free of fault.

已受命而王，必先祭天，乃行王事，文王之伐崇是也，詩曰：“濟濟闢王，左右奉璋。奉璋峨峨，髦士攸宜。”此文王之郊也。其下之辭曰：“淠彼涇舟，烝徒橶之。周王於邁，六師及之。”此文王之伐崇也。上言奉璋，下言伐崇，以是見文王之先郊而後伐也。文王受命則郊，郊乃伐崇，崇國之民方困於暴亂之君，未得被聖人德澤，而文王已郊矣，安在德澤未洽者不可以郊乎！

Having received the mandate and become king, one must first sacrifice to Heaven before undertaking royal affairs, as King Wen's attack on Chong shows. The Greater Odes, "Yu Pu," say: "The dignified king, left and right carry the jade zhang. Carrying the zhang they are solemn, and the outstanding men are fitting." This is King Wen's suburban sacrifice. The words below say: "That boat on the Jing floats, and the many row it with oars. The king of Zhou goes forth, and the six armies follow." This is King Wen attacking Chong. Above it speaks of carrying the zhang, below it speaks of attacking Chong; from this we see that King Wen made the suburban sacrifice first and attacked afterward. When King Wen received the mandate he made the suburban sacrifice, and only after the sacrifice did he attack Chong. The people of Chong were then suffering under a tyrannical ruler and had not yet been covered by the sage's virtue and favor, and yet King Wen had already made the suburban sacrifice. If one whose virtue and favor have not yet reached all cannot hold the suburban sacrifice, then where could it be held!

周宣王時，天下旱，歲惡甚，王憂之，其詩曰：“倬彼雲漢，昭回於天。王曰：‘嗚呼！何辜今之人！天降喪亂，餓饉荐臻。靡神不舉，靡愛斯牲。圭璧既卒，寧莫我聽！旱既太甚，蘊隆蟲蟲。不殄禋祀，自郊徂宮。上下奠瘞，靡神不宗。后稷不克，上帝不臨，耗射下土，寧刃我躬’”宣王自以為不能乎后稷，不中乎上帝，故有此災，有此災，愈恐懼而謹事天，天若不予是家，是家者安得立為天子，立為天子者，天予是家，天予是家者，天使是家，天使是家者，是家天之所予也，天之所使也，天已予之，天已使之，其間不可以接天，何哉？故春秋凡譏郊，未嘗譏君德不成於郊也，乃不郊而祭山川，失祭之敘，逆於禮，故必譏之，以此觀之，不祭天者，乃不可祭小神也。郊因先卜，不吉，不敢郊；百神之祭不卜，而郊獨卜，郊祭最大也。春秋譏喪祭，不譏喪郊，郊不闢喪，喪尚不闢，況他物。郊祝曰：“皇皇上天，照臨下土，集地之靈，降甘風雨，庶物群生，各得其所，靡今靡古，維予一人某，敬拜皇天之祜。”夫不自為言，而為庶物群生言，以人心庶天無尤焉，天無尤焉，而辭恭順，宜可喜也。右郊祀九句，九句者，陽數也。

In the time of King Xuan of Zhou, there was drought in the world and the harvest was very bad, and the king was troubled. The ode says: "How bright is that Milky Way, its light turning across the sky. The king says: 'Alas! What offense have the people of today committed! Heaven has sent down death and disorder, and famine follows one upon another. There is no spirit I have not sacrificed to, and I have spared none of these animals. The jade tablets and discs are already used up; how could they not have heard me! The drought is already too severe, stifling heat flourishing like insects. The sacrifices have not ceased, from the suburbs to the palace. Above and below I have offered and buried, and there is no spirit I have not honored. Houji cannot help, the Lord on High does not descend, the lower earth is wasted; will the blade fall upon my own self?'" King Xuan thought himself unable to match Houji and not in accord with the Lord on High, and so had this calamity; having this calamity, he grew more fearful and served Heaven with care. If Heaven had not given the throne to this house, how could it be set up as Son of Heaven? One established as Son of Heaven is given by Heaven to this house; what Heaven gives to this house is what Heaven employs; what Heaven employs, that house is what Heaven has given and employed. Heaven has already given and already employed, yet in between one cannot connect with Heaven; why is that? Therefore, whenever the Spring and Autumn Annals criticizes the suburban sacrifice, it never criticizes the ruler's virtue as unaccomplished in the suburban sacrifice, but rather criticizes not holding the suburban sacrifice yet sacrificing to mountains and rivers, which loses the order of sacrifice and goes against ritual, and so must be criticized. Seen this way, those who do not sacrifice to Heaven are those who must not sacrifice to minor spirits. For the suburban sacrifice, one first divines, and if it is not auspicious one does not dare hold it; the sacrifices to the hundred spirits are not divined, but the suburban sacrifice alone is divined, because the suburban sacrifice is the greatest. The Spring and Annals criticizes sacrificing during mourning but does not criticize the suburban sacrifice during mourning. The suburban sacrifice does not avoid mourning; if even mourning is not avoided, how much less other things. The suburban prayer says: "August Heaven above, shining down on the lower earth, gathering the spirit of Earth, sending down sweet wind and rain, the myriad things and multitudes of living beings each find their places; whether now or in antiquity, only I, one man, named so and so, respectfully bow to August Heaven's blessing." He does not speak for himself but for the myriad things and multitudes of living beings, hoping with a human heart that Heaven has no resentment. If Heaven has no resentment and the words are respectful, it should be pleasing. The above are nine lines of the suburban sacrifice. Nine lines is a yang number.

父者，子之天也，天者，父之天也，無天而生，未之有也。天者，萬物之祖，萬物非天不生，獨陰不生，獨陽不生，陰陽與天地參然後生，故曰：父之子也可尊，母之子也可卑，尊者取尊號，卑者取卑號，故德侔天地者，皇天右而子之，號稱天子；其次有五等之爵以尊之，皆以國邑為號；其無德於天地之間者，州、國、人、民；甚者不得系國邑，皆絕骨肉之屬，離人倫，謂之閽盜而已，無名姓號氏於天地之間，至賤乎賤者也；其尊至德，巍巍乎不可以加矣，其卑至賤，冥冥其無下矣。春秋列序位，尊卑之陳，累累乎可得而觀也，雖闇至愚，莫不昭然，公子慶父罪亦不當繫於國，以親之故，為之諱，而謂之齊仲孫，去其公子之親也，故有大罪不奉其天命者，皆棄其天倫。人於天也，以道受命，其於人，以言受命；不若於道者，天絕之，不若於言者，人絕之；臣子大受命於君，辭而出疆，唯有社稷國家之危，猶得發辭而專安之盟是也。天子受命於天，諸侯受命於天子，子受命於父，臣妾受命於君，妻受命於夫，諸所受命者，其尊皆天也，雖謂受命於天亦可。天子不能奉天之命，則廢而稱公，王者之後是也；公侯不能奉天子之命，則名絕而不得就位，衛侯朔是也；子不奉父命，則有伯討之罪，衛世子蒯聵是也；臣不奉君命，雖善，以叛言，晉趙鞅入於晉陽以叛是也；妾不奉君之命，則媵女先至者是也；妻不奉夫之命，則絕夫不言及是也；曰不奉順於天者，其罪如此。

The father is the son's Heaven, and Heaven is the father's Heaven. To be born without Heaven has never been. Heaven is the ancestor of the ten thousand things, and the ten thousand things are not born without Heaven: yin alone does not give birth, yang alone does not give birth, and only when yin and yang join with Heaven and Earth is there birth. So it is said: the son of a father can be honored, the son of a mother can be lowly. The honored take honored titles and the lowly take lowly titles. So those whose virtue matches Heaven and Earth are aided by August Heaven, who takes them as sons and gives them the title Son of Heaven; next come those honored by the five ranks of nobility, all using states and cities as titles; those between heaven and earth without virtue are called province, state, person, or people; still lower ones cannot be attached to a state or city, and all are cut off from the bonds of flesh and blood and leave human relations, and are called only gate-robbers, with no name, surname, title, or clan between heaven and earth, the most lowly of the lowly; the honored reach perfect virtue, lofty and incapable of being exceeded, while the lowly reach the utmost abasement, dim with nothing lower. The Spring and Annals sets out the ranks and the arrangement of honored and lowly, which can be viewed in a long line, and even the most benighted find nothing unclear. The guilt of Prince Qingfu should also not be attached to the state; because of kinship, it conceals for him and calls him Zhongsun of Qi, removing his kinship as a prince. So those with great crimes who do not accept Heaven's mandate all have their heavenly relations abandoned. A person receives the mandate from Heaven by the Way, and from other people by words. Those who do not comply with the Way, Heaven cuts off; those who do not comply with words, people cut off. A minister receives a great mandate from his ruler, takes leave and goes out beyond the border, and only when the altars of the state are endangered may he issue words and act on his own authority, as in the covenant of An. The Son of Heaven receives the mandate from Heaven, the feudal lords from the Son of Heaven, the son from the father, ministers and concubines from the ruler, the wife from the husband. In all that is received, the one honored is Heaven, and even to say one receives the mandate from Heaven is acceptable. If the Son of Heaven cannot carry out Heaven's mandate, he is deposed and called duke, as in the descendants of the true king; if a duke or marquis cannot carry out the Son of Heaven's mandate, he is named and cut off and cannot take his position, as with Shuo, Marquis of Wei; if a son does not carry out his father's mandate, he bears the guilt of being attacked by the hegemon, as with Kuaikui, heir of Wei; if a minister does not carry out the ruler's mandate, even if good, it is called rebellion, as in Zhao Yang of Jin entering Jinyang and rebelling; if a concubine does not carry out the ruler's mandate, then it is the accompanying bride who arrives first; if a wife does not carry out the husband's mandate, then she is cut off from the husband and he is not mentioned. It is said: those who do not comply with Heaven have guilt like this.

孔子曰：“畏天命，畏大人，畏聖人之言。”其祭社稷、宗廟、山川、鬼神，不以其道，無災無害；至於祭天不享，其卜不從，使其牛口傷，鼷鼠食其角，或言食牛，或言食而死，或食而生，或不食而自死，或改卜而牛死，或卜而食其角，過有深淺薄厚，而災有簡甚，不可不察也；猶郊之變因其災，而之變應而無為也，見百事之變之所不知而自然者，勝言與！以此見其可畏，專誅絕者，其唯天乎！臣殺君，子殺父，三十有餘，諸其賤者則損，以此觀之，可畏者，其唯天命、大人乎！亡國五十有餘，皆不事畏者也，況不畏大人，大人專誅之，君之滅者，何日之有哉！魯宣違聖人之言，變古易常，而災立至，聖人之言可不慎！此三畏者，異恉而同致，故聖人同之，俱言其可畏也。

Confucius said: "Fear the mandate of Heaven, fear great men, and fear the words of the sages." When sacrifices to the altars of the state, the ancestral temple, mountains and rivers, and ghosts and spirits are not done according to their proper way, there is no calamity and no harm; but when the sacrifice to Heaven is not accepted, the divination does not comply, the ox's mouth is wounded and a shrew gnaws its horn: some say it gnawed the ox, some say it gnawed and the ox died, or gnawed and it lived, or did not gnaw and it died of itself, or the divination was changed and the ox died, or the divination was done and it gnawed the horn. Faults have shallow and deep, thin and thick, and calamities have mild and severe, and one must examine them. Like the changes of the suburban sacrifice that follow from the calamity, and the response to those changes is nothing done, one sees that the changes in a hundred things are unknown and natural, and one cannot finish speaking of them! From this we see it is to be feared. Those who devote themselves to cutting off are probably only Heaven! Ministers who killed rulers and sons who killed fathers number over thirty, and for the lowly the number is diminished. Seen this way, what is to be feared is probably only the mandate of Heaven and great men! Over fifty states have perished, all because they did not serve and did not fear. How much more so one who does not fear great men, whom the great men devote themselves to killing; how many days does a ruler's ruin have left! Duke Xuan of Lu went against the words of the sages, changed the ancient rules, and altered the constants, and calamity arrived at once. Can the words of the sages be disregarded! These three fears have different meanings but converge, and so the sage regarded them as the same and called them all to be feared.

廷尉臣湯昧死言，臣湯承製以郊事問故膠西相仲舒。臣仲舒對曰：“所聞古者天子之禮，莫重於郊，郊常以正月上辛者，所以先百神而最居前，禮三年喪，不祭其先而不敢廢郊，郊重於宗廟，天尊於人也。王制曰：‘祭天地之牛繭栗，宗廟之牛握，賓客之牛尺。’此言德滋美而牲滋微也。春秋曰：‘魯祭周公，用白牡。’色白、貴純也。‘帝牲在滌三月。’牲貴肥潔而不貪其大也。凡養牲之道，務在肥潔而已，駒犢未能勝芻豢之食，莫如令食其母便。”臣湯謹問仲舒：“魯祀周公用白牡，非禮也。”臣仲舒對曰：“禮也。”臣湯問：“周天子用騂犅，群公不毛。周公、諸公也，何以得用純牲？”仲舒對曰：“武王崩，成王立，而在襁褓之中，周公繼文武之業，成二聖之功，德漸天地，澤被四海，故成王賢而貴之，詩云：‘無德不報。’故成王使祭周公以白牡，上不得與天子同色，下有異於諸侯。臣仲舒愚以為報德之禮。”臣湯問仲舒：“天子祭天，諸侯祭土，魯何緣以祭郊？”臣仲舒對曰：“周公傅成王，成王遂及聖，功莫大於此，周公，聖人也，有祭於天道，故成王令魯郊也。”臣湯問仲舒：“魯祭周公用白牡，其郊何用？”臣仲舒對曰：“魯郊用純騂犅，周色上赤，魯以天子命郊，故以騂。”臣湯問仲舒：“祠宗廟或以鳧當鳧，鳧非鳧，可用否？”仲舒對曰：“鶩非鳧，鳧非鶩也。臣聞孔子入太廟，每事問，慎之至也。陛下祭躬親，齋戒沐浴，以承宗廟，甚敬謹，奈何以鳧當鶩，鶩當鳧，名實不相應，以承太廟，不亦不稱乎！臣仲舒愚以為不可。臣犬馬齒衰，賜骸骨，伏陋巷，陛下乃幸使九卿問臣以朝廷之事，臣愚陋，曾不足以承明詔，奉大對。臣仲舒昧死以聞。”

The Commandant of Justice, your servant Tang, at the risk of death submits: your servant Tang received the imperial decree and asked the late Chancellor of Jiaoxi, Zhongshu, about the suburban sacrifice. Your servant Zhongshu replied: "As I have heard, among the rituals of the Sons of Heaven in ancient times, none was weightier than the suburban sacrifice. The suburban sacrifice is always on the first xin day of the first month, in order to precede the hundred spirits and stand foremost. By the ritual, in the three-year mourning, one does not sacrifice to one's ancestors but does not dare abandon the suburban sacrifice. The suburban sacrifice outweighs the ancestral temple, and Heaven is more honored than people. The Royal Regulations say: 'The ox sacrificed to heaven and earth has horns like a cocoon or chestnut; the ox of the ancestral temple has horns like a handful; the ox for guests has horns a foot long.' This means that the finer the virtue, the humbler the sacrificial animal. The Spring and Autumn Annals says: 'Lu sacrificed to the Duke of Zhou with a white bull.' White in color values purity. 'The Lord's sacrificial animal stays in the purification hall for three months.' For the animal, fat and clean is valued and size is not coveted. In all ways of raising sacrificial animals, one strives only for fat and clean. A calf or colt that cannot yet bear the fodder of grain-fed animals is better left to eat its mother's milk." Your servant Tang respectfully asks Zhongshu: "Lu sacrificing to the Duke of Zhou with a white bull was against ritual." Your servant Zhongshu replied: "It was in accord with ritual." Your servant Tang asked: "The Zhou Son of Heaven used a red bull, and the other dukes used mixed-colored animals. The Duke of Zhou was one of the dukes; why could he use an animal of pure color?" Zhongshu replied: "When King Wu died and King Cheng took the throne, he was still in swaddling clothes; the Duke of Zhou continued the work of Wen and Wu and accomplished the merit of the two sages, his virtue soaked heaven and earth and his favor covered the four seas, and so King Cheng honored and valued him. The Book of Songs says: 'There is no virtue not repaid.' So King Cheng had Lu sacrifice to the Duke of Zhou with a white bull: above, it could not be the same color as the Son of Heaven's, and below, it differed from the feudal lords'. Your servant Zhongshu's humble view is that this is the ritual of repaying virtue." Your servant Tang asked Zhongshu: "The Son of Heaven sacrifices to Heaven and the feudal lords sacrifice to the soil; on what basis did Lu hold the suburban sacrifice?" Your servant Zhongshu replied: "The Duke of Zhou assisted and tutored King Cheng, and King Cheng then reached sagehood, and no merit is greater than that. The Duke of Zhou was a sage and had a sacrifice in the way of Heaven, and so King Cheng allowed Lu to hold the suburban sacrifice." Your servant Tang asked Zhongshu: "Lu sacrificed to the Duke of Zhou with a white bull; what did it use for the suburban sacrifice?" Your servant Zhongshu replied: "Lu used a pure red bull for the suburban sacrifice. Zhou's color honored red, and Lu held the suburban sacrifice by the Son of Heaven's order, and so used red." Your servant Tang asked Zhongshu: "In sacrificing in the ancestral temple, some use a wild duck in place of a domestic duck; a wild duck is not a domestic duck; may it be used?" Zhongshu replied: "A domestic duck is not a wild duck, and a wild duck is not a domestic duck. Your servant has heard that when Confucius entered the Grand Temple, he asked about everything, with the utmost care. Your Majesty personally sacrifices, fasts and bathes, and serves the ancestral temple with great reverence; how could you take a wild duck for a domestic duck, or a domestic duck for a wild duck? If name and reality do not correspond, and one uses this to serve the Grand Temple, is that not also unfitting! Your servant Zhongshu's humble view is that it cannot be done. Your servant, with dog-and-horse years declining, was granted leave to return my bones, and lies in a humble lane, yet Your Majesty has condescended to have a Minister ask your servant about court affairs. Your servant is foolish and crude and not even fit to receive the clear edict and offer a great reply. Your servant Zhongshu, at the risk of death, reports."

凡執贄：天子用暢，公侯用玉，卿用羔，大夫用雁。雁乃有類於長者，長者在民上，必施然有先後之隨，必俶然有行列之治，故大夫以為贄。羔有角而不任，設備而不用，類好仁者；執之不鳴，殺之不諦，類死義者；羔食於其母，必跪而受之，類知禮者；故羊之為言猶祥與，故卿以為贄。玉有似君子。子曰：“人而不曰如之何，如之何者，吾末如之何也矣。”故匿病者，不得良醫，羞問者，聖人去之，以為遠功而近有災，是則不有。玉至清而不蔽其惡，內有瑕穢，必見之於外，故君子不隱其短，不知則問，不能則學，取之玉也。君子比之玉，玉潤而不汙，是仁而至清潔也；廉而不殺，是義而不害也；堅而不硻，過而不濡，視之如庸，展之如石，狀如石，搔而不可從繞，潔白如素而不受汙，玉類備者，故公侯以為贄。暢有似於聖人者，純仁淳粹，而有知之貴也，擇於身者，盡為德音，發於事者，盡為潤澤，積美陽芳香以通之天，暢亦取百香之心獨末之，合之為一，而達其臭氣暢於天，其淳粹無擇，與聖人一也，故天子以為贄，而各以事上也。觀贄之意，可以見其事。

For all those who carry gifts of introduction: the Son of Heaven uses fragrant sacrificial wine, dukes and marquises use jade, ministers use lambs, and grandees use wild geese. The wild goose resembles an elder: elders stand above the people, and so they must proceed leisurely with those who follow in order, and must govern evenly with ranks in line, and so grandees use it as their gift. The lamb has horns but does not use them, setting up defenses without using them, resembling a person who loves benevolence; seized, it does not cry, killed, it does not bleat, resembling a person who dies for righteousness; when a lamb nurses from its mother, it kneels to receive it, resembling a person who knows ritual. So the character for sheep is like that for auspice, and therefore ministers use it as their gift. Jade resembles the gentleman. Confucius said: "If a person does not say 'what is to be done, what is to be done,' there is nothing I can do for him." So those who conceal an illness cannot get a good physician; those who are ashamed to ask, the sage leaves them, thinking they are far from merit and close to calamity, and then there is nothing left. Jade is purest and does not conceal its flaws; if there are blemishes within, they certainly show outside, and so the gentleman does not hide his shortcomings, asks when he does not know, and learns when he cannot do something; this is taken from jade. The gentleman compares himself to jade: jade is smooth and not soiled, being benevolent and supremely clean; it has edges and does not harm, being righteous and not harming; it is hard but not brittle and passes through but is not soft; looked at it seems ordinary, unfolded it is like stone, shaped like stone, but scratched it cannot be followed around, and white as plain silk and not stained. Jade is complete in these kinds, so dukes and marquises use it as their gift. Fragrant wine resembles the sage: purely benevolent and unmixed, with the nobility of knowing. What it chooses in the person is all virtuous sound; what is issued in affairs is all moistening grace. It accumulates fine yang and fragrance to reach Heaven. Fragrant wine takes the heart of the hundred scents, uses only their tips, and combines them into one, so that its aroma reaches Heaven freely. It is pure and without selection, and is one with the sage, so the Son of Heaven uses it as his gift, and each uses it to serve those above. By observing the meaning of the gift, one can see the matter.

山則巃嵷崔，嶊嵬●巍，久不崩，似仁人志士。孔子曰：“山川神隻立，寶藏殖，器用資，曲直合，大者可以為宮室臺榭，小者可以為舟輿畜灄，大者無不中，小者無不入，持斧則斫，折鐮則艾，生人立，禽獸伏，死人入，多其功而不言，是以君子取譬也。且積土成山，無損也；成其高，無害也；成其大，無虧也；小其上，泰其下，久長安後世，無有去就，儼然獨處，惟山之意。詩云：‘節彼南山，惟石巖巖；赫赫師尹，民具爾瞻。’此之謂也。”

As for a mountain, it is lofty and towering (a rare character in the original text, lost in transcription), high and sheer (a character damaged in the original), lasting long without collapse (a rare character in the original text, lost in transcription), like a benevolent person of high aspiration. Confucius said: "Mountains and rivers establish their spirits, treasures are produced and multiplied, utensils are drawn from them, and crooked and straight alike fit: the large can make palaces, terraces, and pavilions, and the small can make boats, carts, and stored goods. The large are all useful and the small all go in. Take an axe and fell, break a sickle and reap. The living stand on top of it, birds and beasts hide inside it, and the dead are buried in it. It does much good yet says nothing, and so the gentleman takes it as a comparison. Moreover, soil heaped up makes a mountain without loss; accomplishing its height does no harm; accomplishing its greatness suffers no deficiency. Small above and secure below, long steady for later ages, without coming or going, it stands solemnly alone there, which is simply the meaning of a mountain. The Lesser Odes, 'Jie Nan Shan,' says: 'That lofty southern mountain, with rocks piled layer upon layer; the mighty Shi Yin, the people all look to you.' This is what it speaks of."

水則源泉混混澐澐，晝夜不竭，既似力者；盈科後行，既似持平者，循微赴下，不遺小間，既似察者；循溪谷不迷，或奏萬里而必至，既似知者；障防山而能清淨，既似知命者；不清而入，潔清而出，既似善化者；赴千仞之壑，入而不疑，既似勇者；物皆困於火，而水獨勝之，既似武者；鹹得之而生，失之而死，既似有德者。孔子在川上曰：“逝者如斯夫，不捨晝夜。”此之謂也。

As for water, the springs gush and flow without drying up day or night, already like a person of strength; filling hollows and then going forward, already like a person who holds level; following the finest passages to go low and not leaving out small gaps, already like a person of discernment; following valleys without losing the way, or going ten thousand li and surely arriving, already like a person of knowledge; blocked and dammed in the mountains yet able to be clear, already like a person who knows fate; entering unclear and leaving pure, already like a person good at transforming others; rushing into a ravine a thousand fathoms deep and entering without hesitation, already like a brave person; when all things are hard pressed by fire, water alone can overcome it, already like a martial person; all obtain it and live, lose it and die, already like a person of virtue. Confucius said by the river: "What passes is like this, never stopping day or night." This is what it speaks of.

春旱求雨，令縣邑以水日禱社稷山川，家人祀戶，無伐名木，無斬山林，暴巫，聚尪，八日於邑東門之外，為四通之壇，方八尺，植蒼繒八，其神共工，祭之以生魚八、玄酒、具清酒、膊脯，擇巫之潔清辯利者以為祝，祝齋三日，服蒼衣，先再拜，乃跪陳，陳已，復再拜，乃起。祝曰：“昊天生五穀以養人，今五穀病旱，恐不成實，敬進清酒膊脯，再拜請雨。雨幸大澍，即奉牲禱。”以甲乙日為大蒼龍一，長八丈，居中央，為小龍七，各長四丈，於東方，皆東鄉，其間相去八尺，小童八人，皆齋三日，服青衣而舞之，田嗇夫亦齋三日，服青衣而立之，鑿社，通之於閭外之溝，取五蝦蟆，錯置社之中，池方八尺，深一尺，置水蝦蟆焉，具清酒、膊脯，祝齋三日，服蒼衣，拜跪陳祝如初，取三歲雄雞與三歲豭豬，皆燔之於四通神宇，令民闔邑里南門，置水其外，開邑里北門，具老豭豬一，置之於裡北門之外，市中亦置豭豬一，聞鼓聲，皆燒豭豬尾，取死人骨埋之，開山淵，積薪而燔之，信道橋之壅塞，不行者決瀆之，幸而得雨，報以處一，酒鹽黍財足，以茅為席，毋斷。

Seeking rain in spring when there is drought: order the counties and towns on water days to pray to the altars of the state, mountains, and rivers; households sacrifice to the door; do not fell famous trees or cut the mountain forests; have the shamans exposed to the sun and gather the emaciated; on the eighth day outside the east gate of the town, make an altar open on all four sides, eight feet square, and set up eight lengths of blue-green silk; the spirit is Gonggong, and sacrifice with eight fresh fish and dark wine, with clear wine and dried meat prepared. Choose a shaman from the neighborhood who is pure and eloquent as invocator. The invocator fasts three days, wears blue-green clothes, first bows twice, and only then kneels and presents the invocation; when finished presenting, bows twice again, and only then rises. The invocation says: "August Heaven produces the five grains to feed people; now the five grains suffer from drought, and I fear they cannot ripen. I respectfully offer clear wine and dried meat and bow twice to ask for rain. If rain falls abundantly, I will offer sacrificial animals in thanks." On jia and yi days make one great blue-green dragon, eight zhang long, placed in the center; make seven small dragons, each four zhang long, in the east, all facing east, eight feet apart. Eight boys fast for three days and dance wearing blue-green clothes. The field overseer also fasts for three days and stands wearing blue-green clothes. Dig open the altar and connect it to the ditch outside the neighborhood gate; take five toads and place them mixed in the altar. Make a pool eight feet square and one foot deep, and place water toads in it. Prepare clear wine and dried meat. The invocator fasts three days, wears blue-green clothes, and bows, kneels, and presents the invocation as at first. Take a three-year-old rooster and a three-year-old boar and burn them in the open-sided spirit hall. Order the people to close the south gate of the town and let water out, open the north gate of the town, prepare an old boar and place it outside the north gate, and place one boar in the market as well. When the drum sounds, all burn boar tails. Bury the bones of the dead, open the mountain ravines, pile up firewood and burn it, clear blockages in roads and bridges, and open ditches where they do not pass. If rain is fortunately obtained, offer one animal in thanks, with wine, salt, millet, and goods sufficient, and use thatch for mats without cutting it.

夏求雨，令縣邑以水日，家人祀灶，無舉土功，更火浚井，暴釜於壇，臼杵於術，七日為四通之壇於邑南門之外，方七尺，植赤繒七，其神送尤，祭之以赤雄雞七、玄酒，具清酒、膊脯，祝齋三日，服赤衣，拜跪陳祝如春辭。以丙刃日為大赤龍一，長七丈，居中央，又為小龍六，各長三丈五尺，於南方，皆南鄉，其間相去七尺，壯者七人，皆齋三日，服赤衣而舞，司空嗇夫亦齋三日，服赤衣而立之，鑿社，而通之閭外之溝，取五蝦暮，錯置里社之中，池方七尺，深一尺，具酒脯，祝齋，衣赤衣，拜跪陳祝如初，取三歲雄雞豭豬，燔之四通神宇，開陰閉陽如春也。

Seeking rain in summer: order the counties and towns on water days, households sacrifice to the stove, do not undertake earthworks, change the fire and dredge the wells, expose the cauldrons on the altar to the sun and place mortars and pestles on the roads. On the seventh day outside the south gate of the town make an altar open on all four sides, seven feet square, and set up seven lengths of red silk; the spirit is Chiyou, and sacrifice with seven red roosters and dark wine, with clear wine and dried meat prepared. The invocator fasts three days, wears red clothes, and bows, kneels, and presents the invocation as in the spring words. On bing and ding days (the original text writes "bing ren"; ren is a miswriting of ding) make one great red dragon, seven zhang long, placed in the center; also make six small dragons, each three zhang five chi long, in the south, all facing south, seven feet apart. Seven strong men fast for three days and dance wearing red clothes. The overseer of works also fasts for three days and stands wearing red clothes. Dig open the altar and connect it to the ditch outside the neighborhood gate; take five toads and place them mixed in the neighborhood altar. Make a pool seven feet square and one foot deep. Prepare wine and dried meat. The invocator fasts, wears red clothes, and bows, kneels, and presents the invocation as at first. Take a three-year-old rooster and boar and burn them in the open-sided spirit hall. Open yin and close yang as in spring.

季夏禱山陵以助之，令縣邑十日壹徙市於邑南門之外，五日禁男子無得行入市，家人祠中溜，無舉土功，聚巫市傍，為之結蓋，為四通之壇於中央，植黃繒五，其神后稷，祭之以母?五、玄酒，具清酒、膊脯，令各為祝齋三日，衣黃衣，皆如春祠。以戊己日為大黃龍一，長五丈，居中央，又為小龍四，各長二丈五尺，於南方，皆南鄉，其間相去五尺，丈夫五人，皆齋三日，服黃衣而舞之，老者五人，亦齋三日，衣黃衣而立之，亦通社中於閭外之溝，蝦蟆，池方五尺，深一尺，他皆如前。

In late summer, pray at the mountains and mounds to assist: order the counties and towns to move the market once every ten days to outside the south gate of the town, and for five days forbid men from entering the market. Households sacrifice to the central courtyard, do not undertake earthworks, gather the shamans beside the market, and give them shelter. In the center make an altar open on all four sides and set up five lengths of yellow silk; the spirit is Houji, and sacrifice with five female (a character lost in transcription in the original text) animals and dark wine, with clear wine and dried meat prepared. Have each act as invocator, fast three days, and wear yellow clothes, all as in the spring sacrifice. On wu and ji days make one great yellow dragon, five zhang long, placed in the center; also make four small dragons, each two zhang five chi long, in the south, all facing south, five feet apart. Five men fast for three days and dance wearing yellow clothes. Five elders also fast for three days and stand wearing yellow clothes. Also connect the altar to the ditch outside the neighborhood gate. The toad pool is five feet square and one foot deep. Everything else is as before.

秋暴巫尪至九日，無舉火事，無煎金器，家人祠門，為四通之壇於邑西門之外，方九尺，植白繒九，其神少昊，祭之以桐木魚九，玄酒，具清酒、膊脯，衣白衣，他如春。以庚辛日為大白龍一，長九丈，居中央，為小龍八，各長四丈五尺，於西方，皆西鄉，其間相去九尺，鰥者九人，皆齋三日，服白衣而舞之，司馬亦齋三日，衣白衣而立之，蝦蟆，池方九尺，深一尺，他皆如前。

In autumn, have shamans and emaciated persons exposed to the sun for nine days, do not undertake fire work, do not melt metal vessels, and households sacrifice to the gate. Outside the west gate of the town make an altar open on all four sides, nine feet square, and set up nine lengths of white silk; the spirit is Shaohao, and sacrifice with nine paulownia-wood fish and dark wine, with clear wine and dried meat prepared, wearing white clothes, and the rest as in spring. On geng and xin days make one great white dragon, nine zhang long, placed in the center; make eight small dragons, each four zhang five chi long, in the west, all facing west, nine feet apart. Nine widowers fast for three days and dance wearing white clothes. The Minister of War also fasts for three days and stands wearing white clothes. The toad pool is nine feet square and one foot deep. Everything else is as before.

冬舞龍六日，禱於名山以助之，家人祠井，無壅水，為四通之壇於邑北門之外，方六尺，植黑繒六，其神玄冥，祭之以黑狗子六、玄酒，具清酒、膊脯，祝齋三日，衣黑衣，祝禮如春。以壬癸日為大黑龍一，長六丈，居中央，又為小龍五，各長三丈，於北方，皆北鄉，其間相去六尺，老者六人，皆齋三日，衣黑衣而舞之，尉亦齋三日，服黑衣而立之，蝦蟆、池，皆如春。

In winter, dance the dragons for six days and pray at famous mountains to assist. Households sacrifice to the well and do not block the water. Outside the north gate of the town make an altar open on all four sides, six feet square, and set up six lengths of black silk; the spirit is Xuanming, and sacrifice with six black puppies and dark wine, with clear wine and dried meat prepared. The invocator fasts three days, wears black clothes, and the invocation ritual is as in spring. On ren and gui days make one great black dragon, six zhang long, placed in the center; also make five small dragons, each three zhang long, in the north, all facing north, six feet apart. Six elders fast for three days and dance wearing black clothes. The commandant also fasts for three days and stands wearing black clothes. The toad pool is all as in spring.

四時皆以水日，為龍必取潔土為之，結蓋，龍成而發之。四時皆以庚子之日，令吏民夫婦皆偶處。凡求雨之大體，丈夫欲藏匿，女子欲和而樂。

In all four seasons it is on water days. In making the dragons one must take clean earth to make them and cover them with shelter, and when the dragons are finished they are opened. In all four seasons on the gengzi day, order officials and people, husbands and wives, to stay together in pairs. The general principle of all rain-seeking: men must hide away, and women must be harmonious and joyful.

雨太多，令縣邑於土日塞水瀆，絕道，蓋井，禁婦人不得行入市，令縣鄉里皆掃社，下縣邑若丞合史嗇夫三人以上，祝一人，鄉嗇夫若吏三人以上，祝一人，里正父老三人以上，祝一人，皆齋三日，各衣時衣，具處一，黍鹽美酒財足祭社，擊鼓三日，而祝先再拜，乃跪陳，陳已，復再拜，乃起。祝曰：“嗟！天生五穀以養人，今淫雨太多，五穀不和，敬進肥牲清酒，以請社靈，幸為止雨，除民所苦，無使陰滅陽，陰滅陽，不順於天，天之常意在於利人，人願止雨，敢告於社。”鼓而無歌，至罷乃止。凡止雨之大體，女子欲其藏而匿也，丈夫欲其和而樂也，開陽而閉陰，闔水而開大，以朱絲縈社十週，衣赤衣赤幘，三日罷。二十一年八月甲申朔丙午，江都相仲舒告內史中尉：陰雨太久，恐傷五穀，趣止雨，止雨之禮，廢陰起陽，書十七縣、八十離鄉，及都官吏千石以下夫婦在官者，鹹遣婦歸，女子不得至市，市無詣井，蓋之，勿令洩，鼓用牲於社。祝之曰：“雨以太多，五穀不和，敬進肥牲，以請社靈，社靈幸為止雨，除民所苦，無使陰滅陽，陰滅陽，不順於天，天意常在於利民，願止雨，敢告。”鼓用牲於社，皆壹以辛亥之日，書到，即起縣社令長若丞尉官長，各城邑社嗇夫裡吏正里人皆出，至於社，下餔而罷，三日而止，未至三日，天?亦止。

Too much rain: order the counties and towns on earth days to block the water channels, cut off the roads, cover the wells, and forbid women from entering the market. Order the counties, townships, and neighborhoods all to sweep the altar of the state. Down to the county and town, where there are three or more among deputy, clerk, and overseer, one invocator; where there are three or more among township overseers or officials, one invocator; where there are three or more among neighborhood heads and elders, one invocator. All fast for three days, each wearing the clothing of the current season, and prepare one pig and millet, salt, fine wine, and goods sufficient to sacrifice to the altar. Beat the drum for three days; the invocator first bows twice, and only then kneels and presents the invocation, and when finished bows twice again and only then rises. The invocation says: "Alas! Heaven produced the five grains to feed people; now excessive rain is too much and the five grains are not in harmony. I respectfully offer a fat animal and clear wine to ask the spirit of the altar, hoping the rain will stop and what troubles the people be removed, and that yin not extinguish yang. Yin extinguishing yang is not in accord with Heaven. Heaven's constant intent is to benefit people. The people wish the rain to stop; I dare report to the altar." Beat the drum but do not sing, and stop only when it is finished. The general principle of all stopping of rain: women must hide away, and men must be harmonious and joyful. Open yang and close yin, close water and open fire. Wind red silk around the altar ten times, wearing red clothes and red caps, for three days to finish. In the twenty-first year, eighth month, first day jiashen, on the bingwu day, Zhongshu, Chancellor of Jiangdu, announced to the Interior Minister and the Commandant: the yin rains have lasted too long and I fear they will damage the five grains; stop the rain quickly. The ritual of stopping rain is to abolish yin and raise yang. The document arrived in seventeen counties and eighty township divisions, and among all the officials of the capital offices with salary of a thousand shi or less whose husbands and wives were in office, all were to send their wives and children back, women were not to go to the market, and the market was not to go to the well; cover the wells so they do not leak. Beat drums and offer animals at the altar. The invocation says: "Because the rain is too much and the five grains are not in harmony, I respectfully offer a fat animal to ask the spirit of the altar; may the spirit of the altar fortunately stop the rain, remove what troubles the people, and not let yin extinguish yang. Yin extinguishing yang is not in accord with Heaven. Heaven's intent is constantly to benefit the people. May the rain stop; I dare report." Beat drums and offer animals at the altar, always on the xinhai day. When the document arrives, begin: the county altar officials, magistrates, deputies, commandants, and chiefs, and the altar overseers, neighborhood officials, heads, and neighborhood people of each town all come out and go to the altar and remain until the shen hour in the afternoon, for three days and then stop. Before three days were up, Heaven (a character lost in transcription in the original text) had stopped as well.

五穀食物之性也，天之所以為人賜也，宗廟上四時之所成，受賜而薦之宗廟，敬之性也，於祭之而宜矣。宗廟之祭物之厚無上也，春上豆實，夏上尊實，秋上朹實，冬上敦實。豆實，韭也，春之所始生也；尊實，●也，夏之所受初也；朹實，黍也，秋之所先成也；敦實，稻也，冬之所畢熟也。始生故曰祠，善其司也；夏約故曰礿，貴所受初也；先成故曰嘗，嘗言甘也；畢熟故曰蒸，蒸言眾也；奉四時所受於天者而上之，為上祭，貴天賜且尊宗廟也，孔子受君賜則以祭，況受天賜乎！一年之中，天賜四至，至則上之，此宗廟所以歲四祭也。故君子未嘗不食新，新天賜至，必先薦之，乃敢食之，尊天敬宗廟之心也，尊天，美義也，敬宗廟，大禮也，聖人之所謹也，不多而欲潔清，不貪數而欲恭敬。君子之祭也，躬親之，致其中心之誠，盡敬潔之道，以接至尊，故鬼享之，享之如此，乃可謂之能祭。祭者，察也，以善逮鬼神之謂也，善乃逮不可聞見者，故謂之察，吾以名之所享，故祭之不虛，安所可察哉！祭之為言際也與，祭然後能見不見，見不見之見者，然後知天命鬼神，知天命鬼神，然後明祭之意，明祭之意，乃知重祭事，孔子曰：“吾不與祭，如不祭。祭神如神在。”重祭事如事生，故聖人於鬼神也，畏之而不敢欺也，信之而不獨任，事之而不專恃，恃其公，報有德也，幸其不私與人福也，其見於詩曰：“嗟爾君子，毋恆安息，靜共爾位，好是正直，神之聽之，介爾景福。”正直者，得福也，不正者，不得福，此其法也，以詩為天下法矣。何謂不法哉？其辭直而重有再嘆之，欲人省其意也，而人尚不省，何其忘哉！孔子曰：“書之重，辭之復。嗚呼！不可不察也，其中必有美者焉。”此之謂也。

The five grains are the nature of food and are what Heaven gives to people. In the ancestral temple one offers what the four seasons have accomplished, receiving the gift and presenting it in the temple; this is the nature of reverence and is fitting for sacrifice. Among the sacrifices of the ancestral temple, no material offering is more generous than these. In spring one offers the contents of the dou vessel, in summer the contents of the zun vessel, in autumn the contents of the bian vessel, and in winter the contents of the dui vessel. The dou offering is chives, which begin to grow in spring; the zun offering is (a character is missing in the source text), which summer first receives; the bian offering is millet, which autumn brings to completion first; the dui offering is rice, which winter completes in ripening. Because it is the beginning of growth, it is called ci, praising its management; because summer is simple, it is called yue, valuing what is first received; because it is first completed, it is called chang, meaning sweet; because it is completed in ripening, it is called zheng, meaning abundant. Presenting up what the four seasons receive from Heaven as the highest sacrifice values Heaven's gift and honors the ancestral temple. When Confucius received a gift from the ruler he used it for sacrifice, how much more when receiving a gift from Heaven! Within a year Heaven's gifts arrive four times, and when they arrive they are offered, which is why the ancestral temple has four sacrifices a year. So the gentleman never eats anything new without first offering it: when Heaven's new gift arrives, it must first be presented before one dares to eat, out of a heart that honors Heaven and respects the ancestral temple. Honoring Heaven is a fine righteousness and respecting the ancestral temple is a great ritual, and these are what the sage is careful about: not seeking much but wanting purity, not coveting frequency but wanting reverence. In the gentleman's sacrifice he does it himself, giving the sincerity of his heart and exhausting the way of reverence and purity, to receive the most honored, so that the spirits partake. Only when they partake to this extent can it be called able to sacrifice. Sacrifice (ji) is examination (cha), meaning reaching the spirits by goodness. When goodness reaches what cannot be heard or seen, it is called examination. If I partake because of the name, then the sacrifice is empty; how can it be examined! The word 'sacrifice' probably means 'boundary' (ji). Only through sacrifice can one see the unseen; seeing that unseen, one then knows the mandate of Heaven and the spirits; knowing the mandate of Heaven and the spirits, one then understands the meaning of sacrifice; understanding the meaning of sacrifice, one knows to value sacrificial affairs. Confucius said, 'If I do not take part in the sacrifice, it is as if I had not sacrificed. Sacrifice to the spirits as if the spirits were present.' Valuing sacrificial affairs is like serving the living. So the sage toward the spirits fears and does not dare to deceive, trusts but does not rely on them alone, serves them but does not depend on them exclusively: he depends on their impartiality, rewarding those with virtue, and is glad that they do not give blessings privately. This is seen in the Lesser Odes, 'Xiao Ming' in the Book of Songs: 'Alas, you gentlemen, do not rest constantly; quietly and respectfully hold your position and love the upright. The spirits will listen and give you great blessing.' The upright receive blessing and those who are not upright do not receive blessing; this is the law, and making the poem a standard for the world, how can it be said not to be taken as a model? Its wording is direct and weighty, with repeated sighs, wanting people to examine its meaning, yet people still do not know how to examine; how forgetful! Confucius said, 'The repetitions in the Documents and the repeated phrasing in the words. Alas! One must not fail to examine them, for there must be something fine in them.' This is what it means.

循天之道以養其身，謂之道也。天有兩和，以成二中，歲立其中，用之無窮，是北方之中用合陰，而物始動於下，南方之中用合陽，而養始美於上。其動於下者，不得東方之和不能生，中春是也；其養於上者，不得西方之和不能成，中秋是也。然則天地之美惡在？兩和之處，二中之所來歸，而遂其為也。是故東方生而西方成，東方和生，北方之所起；西方和成，南方之所養長；起之，不至於和之所不能生；養長之，不至於和之所不能成；成於和，生必和也；始於中，止必中也；中者，天地之所終始也，而和者，天地之所生成也。夫德莫大於和，而道莫正於中，中者，天地之美達理也，聖人之所保守也，詩云：“不剛不柔，佈政優優。”此非中和之謂與！是故能以中和理天下者，其德大盛，能以中和養其身者，其壽極命。男女之法，法陰與陽，陽氣起於北方，至南方而盛，盛極而合乎陰；陰氣起乎中夏，至中冬而盛，盛極而合乎陽；不盛不合。是故十月而壹俱盛，終歲而乃再合，天地久節，以此為常，是故先法之內矣，養身以全，使男子不堅牡，不家室，陰不極盛，不相接，是故身精明難衰而堅固，壽考無忒，此天地之道也。天氣先盛牡而後施精，故其精固，地氣盛牝而後化，故其化良。是故陰陽之會，冬合北方，而物動於下，夏合南方，而物動於上，上下之大動，皆在日至之後，為寒，則凝在裂地，為熱，則焦沙爛石，氣之精至於是。故天地之化，春氣生，而百物皆出，夏氣養，而百物皆長，秋氣殺，而百物皆死，冬氣收，而百物皆藏。是故惟天地之氣而精，出入無形，而物莫不應，實之至也。君子法乎其所貴，天地之陰陽當男女，人之男女當陰陽，陰陽亦可以謂男女，男女亦可以謂陰陽。

Following the Way of Heaven to nurture oneself is called the Way. Heaven has two harmonies, which accomplish two centers. A year stands in them, and its use has no end. The center of the north combines with yin, and things begin to stir below; the center of the south combines with yang, and nurturing begins to flourish above. What stirs below cannot live without obtaining the harmony of the east, which is mid-spring; what is nurtured above cannot be completed without obtaining the harmony of the west, which is mid-autumn. Then where do the good and bad of Heaven and Earth lie? They lie in the place of the two harmonies, the places to which the two centers return, and in following what they do. So the east gives life and the west completes: the east's harmony gives life, as raised by the north; the west's harmony completes, as nourished by the south. When something is raised, without reaching the place of harmony it cannot live; when it is nourished and grown, without reaching the place of harmony it cannot be completed. Completion is in harmony and life must be in harmony; beginning is in the center and ending must be in the center. The center is where Heaven and Earth begin and end; harmony is what Heaven and Earth generate and complete. No virtue is greater than harmony, and no Way is more correct than the center. The center is the principle by which the goodness of Heaven and Earth is conveyed, and what the sage keeps. The Book of Songs, 'Chang Fa' in the Hymns of Shang, says: 'Neither hard nor soft, spreading government with generous harmony.' Is this not the meaning of central harmony! So one who can govern the world with central harmony has virtue greatly flourishing; one who can nurture himself with central harmony has a life that reaches its proper years. The rule of male and female takes yin and yang as model. Yang qi arises from the north and flourishes in the south, and when flourishing reaches its limit it joins yin; yin qi arises from mid-summer and flourishes in mid-winter, and when flourishing reaches its limit it joins yang. Without flourishing it does not join. So in the tenth month all become flourishing together, and only after a full year do they join again. The long-lasting rhythm of Heaven and Earth takes this as the constant rule. So first take it as a model within: nurturing the body seeks completeness, so that a man does not establish a household before his prime, and yin and yang do not meet before they have fully flourished; so the body's essence and clarity are hard to decline and are firm, life is without error; this is the Way of Heaven and Earth. Heaven's qi first flourishes in the male and then gives essence, so its essence is firm; Earth's qi flourishes in the female and then transforms, so its transformation is good. Thus the joining of yin and yang: in winter they join in the north, and things stir below; in summer they join in the south, and things stir above. The great stirrings of up and down both come after the solstice. When it becomes cold, it freezes and splits the earth; when it becomes hot, it scorches sand and cracks stone. The essence of qi reaches this. So the transformation of Heaven and Earth: spring qi gives life, and all things come out; summer qi nurtures, and all things grow; autumn qi kills, and all things die; winter qi gathers, and all things are stored. Thus only the qi of Heaven and Earth is refined, and entering and leaving without form, nothing fails to respond, which is the utmost of reality. The gentleman takes as his model what he values. The yin and yang of Heaven and Earth correspond to male and female, and the male and female of people correspond to yin and yang. Yin and yang can also be called male and female, and male and female can also be called yin and yang.

天地之經，至東方之中，而所生大養，至西方之中，而所養大成，一歲四起，業而必於中，中之所為，而必就於和，故曰和其要也。和者，天之正也，陰陽之平也，其氣最良，物之所生也，誠擇其和者，以為大得天地之奉也。天地之道，雖有不和者，必歸之於和，而所為有功；雖有不中者，必止之於中，而所為不失。是故陽之行，始於北方之中，而止於南方之中；陰之行，始於南方之中，而止於北方之中。陰陽之道不同，至於盛，而皆止於中，其所始起，皆必於中，中者，天地之太極也，日月之所至而卻也，長短之隆，不得過中。天地之制也，兼和與不和，中與不中，而時用之，盡以為功，是故時無不時者，天地之道也。順天之道，節者、天之制也，陽者、天之寬也，陰者、天之急也，中者、天之用也，和者、天之功也，舉天地之道，而美於和，是故物生皆貴氣而迎養之，孟子曰：“我善養吾疾然之氣者也。”謂行必終禮，而心自喜，常以陽得生其意也。公孫之養氣曰：“裡藏泰實則氣不通，泰虛則氣不足，熱勝則氣□，寒勝則氣□，泰勞則氣不入，泰佚則氣宛至，怒則氣高，喜則氣散，憂則氣狂，懼則氣懾，凡此十者，氣之害也，而皆生於不中和。故君子怒則反中，而自說以和；喜則反中，而收之以正；憂則反中，而舒之以意；懼則反中，而實之以精。”夫中和之不可不反如此。故君子道至氣則華而上，凡氣從心，心、氣之君也，何為而氣不隨也，是以天下之道者，皆言內心其本也。故仁人之所以多壽者，外無貪而內清淨，心和平而不失中正，取天地之美，以養其身，是其且多且治。鶴之所以壽者，無宛氣於中，是故食在；猿之所以壽者，好引其末，是故氣四越。天氣常下施於地，是故道者亦引氣於足，天之氣常動而不滯，是故道者亦不宛氣。

The constant of Heaven and Earth: reaching the center of the east, what was produced is greatly nourished; reaching the center of the west, what was nourished is greatly completed. Four times a year things arise, and the work is bound to lie in the center. What the center does must go toward harmony, so it is said harmony is the essence. Harmony is the rectitude of Heaven and the balance of yin and yang; its qi is the best, and it is what things are born from. If one truly selects harmony, one greatly receives the nurture of Heaven and Earth. In the Way of Heaven and Earth, even where there is disharmony it must return to harmony, so that what is done succeeds; even where there is no center, it must stop at the center, so that what is done is not lost. So the movement of yang begins at the center of the north and stops at the center of the south; the movement of yin begins at the center of the south and stops at the center of the north. The ways of yin and yang differ, but when they flourish they both stop at the center, and where they begin to arise it must also be in the center. The center is the supreme ultimate of Heaven and Earth, where the sun and moon arrive and then retreat. The flourishing of long and short may not pass the center. The institutions of Heaven and Earth combine harmony and disharmony, center and not center, and use them in season, all used for achievement. So there is no untimely time, which is the Way of Heaven and Earth. Following the Way of Heaven: the node is Heaven's system; yang is Heaven's generosity; yin is Heaven's urgency; the center is Heaven's use; harmony is Heaven's achievement. Taking up the Way of Heaven and Earth, its fineness lies in harmony. So all living things value qi and go to meet and nurture it. Mencius said, 'I am good at nurturing my flood-like qi' (the source text has 'ji ran' where 'ji' is an error for 'hao'). It means conduct must end in ritual and the heart is pleased by itself, always using yang to give life to the intention. Gongsun's nurturing of qi says: 'If the inside is stored too full, qi does not flow; if too empty, qi is insufficient; if heat is dominant, qi is (a character is missing in the source text); if cold is dominant, qi is (a character is missing in the source text); if one is too tired, qi does not enter; if too idle, qi accumulates and comes; anger makes qi rise, joy makes qi scatter, sorrow makes qi go mad, and fear makes qi cower. These ten are the harms of qi and all arise from not being central and harmonious. So the gentleman, when angry, returns to the center and rejoices by himself with harmony; when joyful, returns to the center and gathers with what is right; when worried, returns to the center and extends with intention; when afraid, returns to the center and fills with essence.' One cannot fail to return to central harmony in this way. So the gentleman's Way, when it reaches qi, is splendid and rises. All qi follows the mind; the mind is ruler of qi, so how could qi not follow? So all in the world who discuss the Way say the inner mind is the root. So a benevolent man lives long because he has no outer greed and is clear within, his mind is peaceful and does not lose rectitude, and he takes the goodness of Heaven and Earth to nurture himself, so he has both much and order. The crane lives long because there is no stagnant qi within, so it eats in its place; the ape lives long because it likes to pull on its limbs, so its qi overflows in all directions. Heaven's qi constantly descends to the earth, so a man of the Way also draws his qi down to the feet; Heaven's qi constantly moves and does not stagnate, so a man of the Way also does not let his qi stagnate.

苟不治，雖滿不虛，是故君子養而和之，節而法之，去其群泰，取其眾和，高臺多陽，廣室多陰，遠天地之和也，故聖人弗為，適中而已矣。法人八尺，四尺，其中也，宮者，中央之音也，甘者，中央之味也，四尺者，中央之制也；是故三王之禮，味皆尚甘，聲皆尚和，處其身，所以常自漸於天地之道，其道同類，一氣之辨也，法天者，乃法人之辨。天之道，向秋冬而陰來，向春夏而陰去，是故古之人霜降而迎女，在泮而殺內，與陰俱近，與陽俱遠也。天地之氣，不致盛滿，不交陰陽；是故君子甚愛氣而遊於房，以體天也。氣不傷於以盛通，而傷於不時天幷；不與陰陽俱往來，謂之不時；恣其欲而不顧天數，謂之天幷。君子治身不敢違天，是故新牡十日而一遊於房，中年者倍新牡，始衰者倍中年，

If one does not govern, even when full one is not empty. So the gentleman nurtures it and makes it harmonious, regulates and models it, removes what is excessive, and takes the abundant harmony. High terraces have much yang and wide rooms have much yin, far from the harmony of Heaven and Earth, so the sage does not build them but keeps to the moderate. By human measure eight feet is the standard and four feet is its middle. Gong is the central note, sweetness is the central taste, and four feet is the central measure. So in the ritual of the Three Kings, tastes all prefer sweetness and sounds all prefer harmony, and by placing oneself thus, one is always immersing oneself in the Way of Heaven and Earth. That Way is of the same kind; it is the distinction within one qi. Modeling Heaven is modeling the distinction in humans. The Way of Heaven is such that toward autumn and winter yin comes, and toward spring and summer yin leaves. So the ancients took wives at the first frost and reduced intercourse when the ice melted, being close to both yin and yang yet far from both. When the qi of Heaven and Earth does not reach fullness, yin and yang do not meet. So the gentleman cherishes qi very much and is leisurely in the bedchamber to embody Heaven. Qi is not harmed by fullness and flows; it is harmed by being untimely and being matched with Heaven. Not going back and forth with yin and yang is called untimely; indulging desire without regard to Heaven's number is called matching Heaven. The gentleman governing himself does not dare to go against Heaven. So a newly vigorous man goes into the chamber once in ten days, a middle-aged man at double the newly vigorous interval, one beginning to decline at double the middle-aged,

中衰者倍始衰，大衰者以月當新牡之日，而上與天地同節矣，此其大略也。然而其要皆期於不極盛不相遇，疏春而曠夏，謂不遠天地之數，民皆知愛其衣食，而不愛其天氣，天氣之於人，重於衣食，衣食盡，尚猶有閒，氣盡而立終。故養生之大者，乃在愛氣，氣從神而成，神從意而出，心之所之謂意，意勞者神擾，神擾者氣少，氣少者難久矣；故君子閒欲止惡以平意，平意以靜神，靜神以養氣，氣多而治，則養身之大者得矣。古之道士有言曰：“將欲無陵，固守一德。”此言神無離形，而氣多內充，而忍飢寒也。和樂者，生之外泰也，精神者，生之內充也，外泰不若內充，而況外傷乎！忿恤憂恨者，生之傷也，和說勸善者，生之養也，君子慎小物而無大敗也，行中正，聲向榮，氣意和平，居處虞樂，可謂養生矣。凡養生者，莫精於氣，是故春襲葛，夏居密陰，秋避殺風，冬避重漯，就其和也；衣欲常漂，食慾常飢，體欲常勞，而無長佚居多也。凡天地之物，乘於其泰而生，厭於其勝而死，四時之變是也。故冬之水氣，東加於春而木生，乘其泰也；春之生，西至金而死，厭於勝也；生於木者，至金而死，生於金者，至火而死；春之所生，而不得過秋，秋之所生，不得過夏，天之數也。飲食臭味，每至一時，亦有所勝，有所不勝，之理不可不察也。四時不同氣，氣各有所宜，宜之所在，其物代美，視代美而代養之，同時美者雜食之，是皆其所宜也。故薺以冬美，而荼以夏成，此可以見冬夏之所宜服矣。冬，水氣也，薺，甘味也，乘於水氣而美

(Continuing:) one in middle decline at double that of beginning decline, and one in great decline counts one month as the newly vigorous man's one day, and so above he shares the same rhythm as Heaven and Earth. This is the outline. Yet in essence all hope that, unless fully flourishing, they do not meet; sparse in spring and sparser in summer is called not being far from the number of Heaven and Earth. People all know to love clothing and food but do not love the qi of Heaven. To a person the qi of Heaven is weightier than clothing and food: when clothing and food run out there is still an interval, but when qi runs out life ends at once. So the greatest nurturing of life lies in cherishing qi. Qi is formed from spirit, and spirit comes out of intention. Where the mind goes is called intention. When intention is strained spirit is disturbed, when spirit is disturbed qi is little, and when qi is little it is hard to last long. So the gentleman guards against desires, stops hatred to level intention, levels intention to still spirit, and stills spirit to nurture qi. When qi is abundant and governed, the greatest part of nurturing the body is achieved. The Daoists of old had a saying: 'Be about to have nothing overstepped, hold to one virtue.' This means that spirit does not leave the form and qi mostly fills the inside, so one can endure hunger and cold. Harmony and joy are the outward ease of life; spirit and essence are the inner fullness of life. Outer ease is not as good as inner fullness, much less outer injury! Anger, worry and resentment are the injuries of life; harmony, delight and encouragement to goodness are its nourishment. The gentleman is careful of small things and so has no great failure: conduct is correct and central, voice tends to flourish, qi and intention are peaceful, dwelling is comfortable, and this may be called nurturing life. In all nurturing of life, nothing is finer than qi. So wear hemp in spring, live in dense shade in summer, avoid killing wind in autumn, avoid heavy damp in winter, going toward harmony. Clothing should be loose and light, food should leave one slightly hungry, the body should be kept moving, and one should not remain idle long or sit much. All things of Heaven and Earth live riding their abundance and die suppressed by what overcomes them, as with the changes of the four seasons. So winter's water qi, going east and added to spring, gives life to wood, which is riding its abundance; spring's life, going west to metal, dies, suppressed by what overcomes it. What lives in wood dies on reaching metal; what lives in metal dies on reaching fire. What is born in spring may not pass autumn, and what is born in autumn may not pass summer, which is the number of Heaven. Food and flavors, at each season, also have what they overcome and what they do not overcome, and this principle must be examined. The qi of the four seasons is different, and each qi has what suits it. Where what suits it lies, those things in turn are good. Watching the successive goodness and nurturing in succession, and eating together mixed things that are good at the same time, are all what suits it. So shepherd's purse is good in winter and bitter herb ripens in summer, from which one can see what is suitable to take in winter and summer. Winter is water qi and shepherd's purse is sweet in taste, so riding the water qi it is good,

者，甘勝寒也，薺之為言濟與，濟，大水也；夏，火氣也，荼，苦味也，乘於火氣而成者，苦勝暑也。天無所言，而意以物，物不與群物同時而生死者，必深察之，是天之所以告人也。故薺成告之甘，荼成告之苦也，君子察物而成告謹，是以至薺不可食之時，而盡遠甘物，至荼成就也。天所獨代之成者，君子獨代之，是冬夏之所宜也。春秋雜物其和，而冬夏代服其宜，則當得天地之美，四時和矣。凡擇美之大體，各因其時之所美，而違天不遠矣。是故當百物大生之時，群物皆生，而此物獨死，可食者，告其味之便於人也，其不可食者，告殺穢除害之不待秋也，當物之大枯之時，群物皆死，如此物獨生，其可食者，益食之，天為之利人，獨代生之，其不可食，益畜之，天愍州華之間，故生宿麥，中歲而熟之，君子察物之異，以求天意，大可見矣。是故男女體其盛，臭味取其勝，居處就其和，勞佚居其中，寒暖無失適，飢飽無過平，欲惡度理，動靜順性，喜怒止於中，憂懼反之正，此中和常在乎其身，謂之得天地泰，得天地泰者，其壽引而長，不得天地泰者，其壽傷而短，短長之質，人之所由受於天也，是故壽有短長，養有得失，及至其末之，大卒而必讎於此，莫之得離，故壽之為言猶讎也，天下之人雖眾，不得不各讎其所生，而壽夭於其所自行，自行可久之道者，其壽讎於久，自行不可久之道者，其壽亦讎於不久，久與不久之情，各讎其生平之所行，今如後至，不可得勝，故曰：壽者，讎也。然則人之所自行，乃與壽夭相益損也；其自行佚，而壽長者，命益之也，其自行端，而壽短者，命損之也，以天命之所損益，疑人之所得失，此大惑也。是故天長之，而人傷之者，其長損；天短之，而人養之者，其短益；夫損益者皆人，人其天之繼歟！出其質而人弗繼，豈獨立哉！

(Continuing:) which is sweetness overcoming cold. The word for shepherd's purse (ji) is like 'ji' meaning great water. Summer is fire qi and bitter herb is bitter in taste, so riding fire qi it ripens, which is bitterness overcoming heat. Heaven has no words to say, but puts its intention into things. A thing that does not live and die at the same time as other things must be examined deeply, which is how Heaven tells people. So the ripening of shepherd's purse tells of sweet, and the ripening of bitter herb tells of bitter. The gentleman examines things and carefully completes what is announced, so when it is time that shepherd's purse cannot be eaten, he keeps far from all sweet things until bitter herb ripens. What Heaven alone brings to maturity in succession, the gentleman also alone takes in succession, which is what suits winter and summer. In spring and autumn he uses a harmony of mixed things, while in winter and summer he takes in succession what suits, and then he should obtain the goodness of Heaven and Earth, and the four seasons are in harmony. In general, the main principle of choosing what is good is to follow what is good at each time and so not be far from Heaven. So when all things are greatly born, all things are born, and this one thing alone dies: if edible, it tells that its flavor is convenient for people; if not edible, it tells to kill filth and remove harm without waiting for autumn. When all things greatly wither, all things die, and if this one thing alone lives: if edible, one eats it all the more, since Heaven alone gives life to it in succession for people's benefit; if not edible, one nurtures it all the more. Heaven pities the area between the central states, so it produces winter wheat, which ripens in the middle of the year. The gentleman examines the differences of things to seek Heaven's intention, and in general it can be seen. So male and female at their flourishing, qi and flavor taking what overcomes, dwelling going toward harmony, labor and rest placed in the middle, cold and warmth not losing what suits, hunger and fullness not exceeding balance, desire and aversion measured by principle, movement and rest following nature, joy and anger stopping at the center, worry and fear returning to rectitude: having this central harmony always on the body is called obtaining the abundance of Heaven and Earth. Those who obtain the abundance of Heaven and Earth have lives drawn long; those who do not obtain it have lives injured and short. The quality of short and long is what people receive from Heaven. So life has short and long, and nurturing has gain and loss, and in the end it must be verified here, with no one able to leave it. So the word for longevity (shou) is like 'verification.' Though people under Heaven are many, they cannot but each verify what they were born with, and early death or long life lies in what one does oneself. One who himself practices the Way that can last long has life verified as long; one who practices the Way that cannot last has life verified as not lasting. The reality of lasting or not lasting is each verified by what one practiced in life, and now it is as if arriving later; it cannot be overcome. So it is said: longevity is verification. Then what people do themselves mutually increases or decreases their life. If one lives at ease and has a long life, destiny has added to him; if one's conduct is upright and life is short, destiny has subtracted from him. To use what fate adds or subtracts to doubt what people gain and lose is a great delusion. So where Heaven makes someone long-lived and he harms himself, the length is reduced; where Heaven makes someone short-lived and he nurtures himself, the shortness is increased. Increase and decrease both lie in people, and people are the continuation of Heaven! If you take out that quality and people do not continue it, can it stand alone!

天地之行美也，是以天高其位而下其施，藏其形而見其光，序列星而近至精，考陰陽而降霜露。高其位，所以為尊也；下其施，所以為仁也；藏其形，所以為神也；見其光，所以為明也；序列星，所以相承也；近至精，所以為剛也；考陰陽，所以成歲也；降霜露，所以生殺也。為人君者，其法取象於天，故貴爵而臣國，所以為仁也；深居隱處，不見其體，所以為神也；任賢使能，觀聽四方，所以為明也；量能授官，賢愚有差，所以相承也；引賢自近，以備股肱，所以為剛也；考實事功，次序殿最，所以成世也；有功者進，無功者退，所以賞罰也。是故天執其道，為萬物主，君執其常，為一國主；天不可以不剛，主不可以不堅；天不剛，則列星亂其行，主不堅，則邪臣亂其官；星亂則亡其天，臣亂則亡其君；故為天者，務剛其氣，為君者，務堅其政，剛堅然後陽道制命。地卑其位而上其氣，暴其形而著其情，受其死而獻其生，成其事而歸其功。卑其位，所以事天也；上其氣，所以養陽也；暴其形，所以為忠也；著其情，所以為信也；受其死，所以藏終也；獻其生，所以助明也；成其事，所以助化也；歸其功，所以致義也。為人臣者，其法取象於地，故朝夕進退，奉職應對，所以事貴也；供設飲食，候視疢疾，所以致養也；委身致命，事無專制，所以為忠也；竭愚寫情，不飾其過，所以為信也；伏節死難，不惜其命，所以救窮也；推進光榮，褒揚其善，所以助明也；受命宣恩，輔成君子，所以助化也；功成事就，歸德於上，所以致義也。是故地明其理，為萬物母；臣明其職，為一國宰；母不可以不信，宰不可以不忠；母不信，則草木傷其根；宰不忠，則奸臣危其君；根傷則亡其枝葉，君危則亡其國；故為地者，務暴其形；為臣者，務著其情。

The movement of Heaven and Earth is fine. So Heaven raises its position and sends its giving downward, hides its form and shows its light, arranges the stars in order and approaches the utmost essence, examines yin and yang and sends down frost and dew. Raising its position completes its honor; giving downward completes its benevolence; hiding its form completes its spirit; showing its light completes its brightness; arranging the stars in order lets them receive from one another; approaching the utmost essence completes its firmness; examining yin and yang completes the year; sending down frost and dew gives both life and death. One who is a ruler of men takes Heaven as his model: he honors rank and makes the states submit as subjects, to complete benevolence; he dwells deep and hidden and does not show his body, to complete spirit; he employs the able and worthy and observes and listens in all four directions, to complete brightness; he grants office by weighing talent, distinguishing the worthy from the foolish, so they receive from one another; he draws the worthy close to himself to complete his limbs, to complete firmness; he examines facts and achievements and ranks them from highest to lowest, to complete the generations; he promotes those with merit and removes those without, for rewards and punishments. So Heaven holds its Way and is master of the ten thousand things; the ruler holds his constants and is master of a state. Heaven cannot but be firm and a lord cannot but be steadfast. If Heaven is not firm, the stars disorder its course; if the lord is not steadfast, wicked ministers disorder his offices. When stars are disordered they lose their Heaven, and when ministers are disordered they lose their ruler. So one who acts as Heaven strives to make his qi firm, and one who acts as ruler strives to make his government steadfast. Only then does the Way of yang control and command. Earth lowers its position and sends its qi upward, shows its form and makes its feelings clear, receives death and offers life, completes affairs and returns merit. Lowering its position serves Heaven; sending its qi upward nurtures yang; showing its form completes its loyalty; making its feelings clear completes its good faith; receiving death stores the ending; offering life assists brightness; completing affairs assists transformation; returning merit conveys righteousness. One who acts as a minister takes Earth as his model: so morning and evening, advancing and retreating, serving in his post and answering, he serves the honored; setting out food and drink and watching over illness conveys nurturing; entrusting his body and delivering his life, with nothing done on his own authority, completes loyalty; exhausting his simple sincerity and expressing his true feelings without disguising faults completes good faith; dying for his integrity in calamity without sparing his life rescues those in want; advancing glory and praising goodness assists brightness; receiving orders and spreading kindness and assisting to bring the gentleman to completion assists transformation; when merit is complete and affairs done, giving the credit to those above conveys righteousness. So Earth makes its principle clear and is mother of the ten thousand things; the minister makes his duty clear and is steward of a state. A mother cannot but be trustworthy and a steward cannot but be loyal. If the mother is not trustworthy, grass and trees have their roots injured; if the steward is not loyal, treacherous ministers endanger the ruler. When roots are injured the branches and leaves are lost, and when the ruler is endangered the state is lost. So one who acts as Earth strives to show its form, and one who acts as minister strives to make his feelings clear.

一國之君，其猶一體之心也：隱居深宮，若心之藏於胸；至貴無與敵，若心之神無與雙也；其官人上士，高清明而下重瘻，若身之貴目而賤足也；任群臣無所親，若四肢之各有職也；內有四輔，若心之有肝肺脾腎也；外有百官，若心之有形體孔竅也；親聖近賢，若神明皆聚於心也；上下相承順，若肢體相為使也；布恩施惠，若元氣之流皮毛腠理也；百姓皆得其所，若血氣和平，形體無所苦也；無為致太平，若神氣自通於淵也；致黃龍鳳皇，若神明之致玉女芝英也。君明，臣蒙其功，若心之神，體得以全；臣賢，君蒙其恩，若形體之靜，而心得以安；上亂，下被其患，若耳目不聰明，而手足為傷也；臣不忠，而君滅亡，若形體妄動，而心為之喪。是故君臣之禮，若心之與體；心不可以不堅，君不可以不賢；體不可以不順，臣不可以不忠；心所以全者，體之力也；君所以安者，臣之功也。

The ruler of a state is like the heart of one body: living hidden in the deep palace is like the heart hidden in the chest; being most honored and without equal is like the heart's spirit having no pair. He appoints the upper-ranking officers, high and clear above and lowly and turbid below, as the body values the eyes and lightly regards the feet; he appoints the ministers without private favor, as the four limbs each have their duties; within he has four assisting ministers as the heart has liver, lungs, spleen and kidneys; outside he has a hundred officials as the heart has body and orifices; he draws near the sage and approaches the worthy, as spirit and brightness gather in the heart; those above and below follow one another, as the limbs direct each other; spreading grace and bestowing kindness is like original qi flowing through the skin and pores; when the common people all find their place, it is like blood and qi being at peace and the body being free of pain; reaching great peace through non-action is like spirit and qi themselves passing through the deep; summoning the yellow dragon and phoenix is like spirit and brightness summoning jade maidens and fungus blossoms. If the ruler is enlightened, the ministers receive the benefit, as with the heart's spirit, so the body is preserved; if the ministers are worthy, the ruler receives their kindness, as when the body is at rest the heart is at peace. If there is disorder above, those below suffer its trouble, as when ears and eyes are not keen the hands and feet are injured; if ministers are not loyal and the ruler perishes, it is like the body moving recklessly so that the heart is lost because of it. So the ritual between ruler and ministers is like heart and body: the heart cannot but be firm and the ruler cannot but be worthy; the body cannot but be obedient and the minister cannot but be loyal. What preserves the heart is the strength of the body, and what keeps the ruler secure is the achievement of the ministers.

天有和、有德、有平、有威、有相受之意、有為政之理，不可不審也。春者，天之和也，夏者，天之德也，秋者，天之平也，冬者，天之威也。天之序，必先和然後發德，必先平然後發威，此可以見不和不可以發慶賞之德，不平不可以發刑罰之威，又可見德生於和，威生於平也，不和無德，不平無威，天之道也，達者以此見之矣。我雖有所愉而喜，必先和心以求其當，然後發慶賞以立其德；雖有所忿而怒，必先平心以求其政，然後發刑罰以立其威，能常若是者，謂之天德，行天德者，謂之聖人。為人主者，居至德之位，操殺生之勢，以變化民，民之從主也，如草木之應四時也，喜怒當寒暑，威德當冬夏，冬夏者，威德之合也，寒暑者，喜怒之偶也，喜怒之有時而當發，寒暑亦有時而當出，其理一也。當喜而不喜，猶當暑而不暑；當怒而不怒，猶當寒而不寒；當德而不德，猶當夏而不夏；當威而不威，猶當冬而不冬也；喜怒威德之不可以不直處而發也，如寒暑冬夏之不可不當其時而出也，故謹善惡之端，何以效其然也？春秋採善不遺小，掇惡不遺大，諱而不隱，罪而不忽，□□以是非，正理以褒貶，喜怒之發，威德之處，無不皆中，其應可以參寒暑冬夏之不失其時已，故曰聖人配天。

Heaven has harmony, virtue, balance and authority, with a sense of giving and receiving among them and a principle for conducting government, which must be examined. Spring is Heaven's harmony, summer is Heaven's virtue, autumn is Heaven's balance, and winter is Heaven's authority. In Heaven's order, harmony must come first and then virtue is issued; balance must come first and then authority is issued. From this we see that without harmony one cannot issue the virtue of reward and celebration, and without balance one cannot issue the authority of punishment; we also see that virtue arises from harmony and authority arises from balance. Without harmony there is no virtue, and without balance there is no authority; this is the Way of Heaven. Those who understand see it from this. Even when I am delighted and glad, I must first make my heart harmonious and seek what is fitting, and only then issue rewards to establish my virtue; even when I am angry and furious, I must first make my heart balanced and seek what is right, and only then issue punishments to establish my authority. One who can always be like this is said to have the virtue of Heaven, and one who practices Heaven's virtue is called a sage. One who is a ruler dwells in the position of utmost virtue and holds the power of killing and giving life to transform the people. The people follow the ruler as grass and trees respond to the four seasons. Joy and anger correspond to cold and heat, and authority and virtue correspond to winter and summer. Winter and summer are the union of authority and virtue, and cold and heat are the counterparts of joy and anger. Joy and anger have their times when they should be expressed, and cold and heat also have their times when they should come out; their principle is one. To fail to rejoice when one should rejoice is like failing to be hot when it should be hot; to fail to be angry when one should be angry is like failing to be cold when it should be cold; to fail to show virtue when one should is like failing to have summer when it should be summer; to fail to show authority when one should is like failing to have winter when it should be winter. Joy, anger, authority and virtue must be issued directly where they stand, as cold, heat, winter and summer must come out in their proper time. So be careful with the beginnings of good and evil. By what evidence does it show this is so? The Spring and Autumn takes up the good without omitting the small and picks up the evil without omitting the great, avoiding mention without concealing, and fixing guilt without neglecting; (two characters are missing in the source text) used for right and wrong, praise and blame by correct principle. When joy and anger are issued and authority and virtue are placed, nothing fails to hit the mark, and the correspondence can be compared to cold, heat, winter and summer not losing their time. So it is said that the sage matches Heaven.

陰陽之氣在上天亦在人，在人者為好惡喜怒，在天者為暖清寒暑，出入上下，左右前後，平行而不止，未嘗有所稽留滯鬱也，其在人者，亦宜行而無留，若四時之條條然也。夫喜怒哀樂之止動也，此天之所為人性命者，臨其時而欲發，其應亦天應也，與暖清寒暑之至其時而欲發無異，若留德而待春夏，留刑而待秋冬也，此有順四時之名，實逆於天地之經，在人者亦天也，奈何其久留天氣，使之鬱滯，不得以其正周行也，是故天行谷朽寅而秋生麥，告除穢而繼乏也，所以成功繼乏以贍人也。天之生有大經也，而所周行者又，有害功也，除而殺殛者，行急皆不待時也，天之志也。而聖人承之以治，是故春修仁而求善，秋修義而求惡，冬修刑而致清，夏修德而致寬，此所以順天地，體陰陽；然而方求善之時，見惡而不釋，方求惡之時，見善亦立行，方致清之時，見大善亦立舉之，方致寬之時，見大惡亦立去之，以效天地之方生之時有殺也，方殺之時有生也，是故志意隨天地，緩急仿陰陽，然而人事之宜行者，無所鬱滯，且恕於人，順於天，天人之道兼舉，此謂執其中。天非以春生人，以秋殺人也，當生者曰生，當死者曰死，非殺物之義待四時也，而人之所治也，安取久留當行之理而必待四時也，此之謂壅非其中也。人有喜怒哀樂，猶天之有春夏秋冬也，喜怒哀樂之至其時而欲發也，若春夏秋冬之至其時而欲出也，皆天氣之然也，其宜直行而無鬱滯一也，天終歲乃一遍此四者，而人主終日不知過此四之數，其理故不可以相待，且天之慾利人，非直其欲利谷也，除穢不待時，況穢人乎！

The qi of yin and yang is in Heaven above and also in people. In people they are likes and dislikes, joy and anger; in Heaven they are warmth, coolness, cold and heat. Going in and out, up and down, left and right, front and back, they move evenly without stopping and have never lingered or stagnated. What is in people should also move without stagnation, as unobstructed as the four seasons. The stopping and moving of joy, anger, sorrow and delight are what Heaven made as human nature and fate, and when their time comes they want to be expressed, and this should also be Heaven's response, no different from warmth, coolness, cold and heat wanting to issue at their time. If one holds back virtue to wait for spring and summer and holds back punishment to wait for autumn and winter, this has the name of following the four seasons but in reality goes against the constant of Heaven and Earth. What is in people is also Heaven; how can one long keep Heaven's qi back, making it stagnate so that it cannot circulate properly? So as Heaven moves, grain rots in the yin month and wheat grows in autumn, telling us to remove the foul and continue what is lacking, so the achievement of continuing what is lacking is to supply people. Heaven's births have great constants, but what they circulate through also has things that harm achievement. Removing and killing them, acting urgently without waiting for the season, is the intent of Heaven. The sage receives this and governs. So in spring he cultivates benevolence and seeks the good, in autumn he cultivates righteousness and seeks the evil, in winter he cultivates punishment and reaches clarity, and in summer he cultivates virtue and reaches generosity, in order to follow Heaven and Earth and embody yin and yang. Yet when he is seeking the good, even if he sees evil he does not let it go; when he is seeking the evil, even if he sees good he promptly carries it out; when he is reaching clarity, even if he sees great good he promptly raises it; when he is reaching generosity, even if he sees great evil he promptly removes it. This is to imitate Heaven and Earth: in the time of life there is killing, and in the time of killing there is life. So his aims follow Heaven and Earth, and his slowness and urgency imitate yin and yang. Yet what should be carried out in human affairs should have no stagnation, and one is forgiving toward people and obedient toward Heaven, and the Way of Heaven and humanity are carried out together; this is called holding the center. Heaven does not use spring to give life to people and autumn to kill them. What should live is called living and what should die is called dying; it is not that the righteousness of killing things waits for the four seasons. And what people govern, how could they take the principle of what should be done and hold it for a long time and insist on waiting for the four seasons? This is called blockage, not the center. People have joy, anger, sorrow and delight as Heaven has spring, summer, autumn and winter. When joy, anger, sorrow and delight come to their time and want to be expressed, it is like spring, summer, autumn and winter coming to their time and wanting to come out; all are caused by Heaven's qi. That they should be carried out directly without stagnation is one matter. Heaven goes through these four only once a year, but a ruler goes beyond the number of four all day without noticing, and their principle cannot properly wait on each other. Moreover Heaven wishes to benefit people, not just grain. If it removes foulness without waiting for the season, how much more for the foulness of people!

天、地、陰、陽、木、火、土、金、水、九，與人而十者，天之數畢也，故數者至十而止，書者以十為終，皆取之此。聖人何其貴者，起於天，至於人而畢，畢之外，謂之物，物者，投其所貴之端，而不在其中，以此見人之超然萬物之上，而最為天下貴也。人下長萬物，上參天地，故其治亂之故，動靜順逆之氣，乃損益陰陽之化，而搖盪四海之內，物之難知者若神，不可謂不然也。今投地死傷，而不騰相助，投淖相動而近，投水相動而愈遠，由此觀之，夫物愈淖而愈易變動搖盪也。今氣化之淖，非直水也，而人主以眾動之無已時，是故常以治亂之氣，與天地之化相殽而不治也。世治而民和，志平而氣正，則天地之化精，而萬物之美起；世亂而民乖，志僻而氣逆，則天地之化傷，氣生災害起。是故治世之德潤草木，澤流四海，功過神明；亂世之所起，亦博若是；皆因天地之化，以成敗物，乘陰陽之資，以任其所為，故為惡愆人力，而功傷名自過也。天地之間，有陰陽之氣，常漸人者，若水常漸魚也，所以異於水者，可見與不可見耳，其澹澹也，然則人之居天地之間，其猶魚之離水一也，其無間，若氣而淖於水，水之比於氣也，若泥之比於水也，是天地之間，若虛而實，人常漸是澹澹之中，而以治亂之氣與之流通相殽也，故人氣調和，而天地之化美，殽於惡而味敗，此易之物也，推物之類，以易見難者，其情可得，治亂之氣，邪正之風，是殽天地之化者也，生於化而反殽化，與鉉連也。春秋舉世事之道，夫有書天，之盡與不盡，王者之任也。詩云：“天難諶斯，不易維王。”此之謂也。夫王者不可以不知天，知天，詩人之所難也，天意難見也，其道難理，是故明陽陰入出、實虛之處，所以觀天之志；辨五行之本末、順逆、小大、廣狹，所以觀天道也。

Heaven, Earth, yin, yang, wood, fire, earth, metal and water are nine, and with human beings make ten, completing Heaven's number. So counting stops at ten, and writing takes ten as the end, all taken from this. Why is the sage valued? He arises from Heaven and is completed in humans. What is beyond completion is called things. Things are thrown toward the valued beginnings and are not within them. From this we see that humans stand above all things and are most valued under Heaven. Humans below nurture all things and above match Heaven and Earth, so the reasons for order and disorder and the qi of movement and rest, accord and opposition, increase and decrease the transformations of yin and yang and shake the world within the four seas. Things hard to know are like spirits, and it cannot be said they are not so. Now thrown onto the ground they are injured and killed, and do not leap up to help; thrown into the mud, they move toward each other and draw near; thrown into water, they move toward each other and get farther apart. From this we see that the more muddy a thing is, the easier it is to move and shake. Now the mud of qi transformation is not only water, and rulers use the multitude to move it ceaselessly, so the qi of order and disorder is always mixed with the transformations of Heaven and Earth without being governed. When the age is well governed and the people are in harmony, aims are level and qi is correct, then the transformation of Heaven and Earth is fine and the goodness of the ten thousand things arises; when the age is disorderly and the people are at odds, aims are biased and qi is contrary, then the transformation of Heaven and Earth is injured and the qi of life brings disasters. So the virtue of a well-governed age moistens grass and trees, its grace flows to the four seas, and its achievement exceeds the spirits; what a disordered age brings is also as wide as this. All of it works through the transformation of Heaven and Earth to make or destroy things, riding on the resources of yin and yang to indulge what they do. So doing evil is the fault of human strength, and achievement is injured and one's name goes too far. Between Heaven and Earth there is the qi of yin and yang, constantly steeping people as water constantly steeps fish. So the only difference from water is whether it can be seen, and its dim appearance. Then people living between Heaven and Earth are like fish leaving water, all one matter. There is no gap, like qi but muddier than water. Water compared to qi is like mud compared to water. So between Heaven and Earth, it seems empty but is really full. People are constantly steeped in this dimness and mix with it through the flow of the qi of order and disorder. So when people's qi is harmonious the transformation of Heaven and Earth is fine; when mixed with evil the flavor is spoiled, and this is an easy thing. Seek the kinds of things, use the easy to see the hard, and the feeling can be obtained. The qi of order and disorder and the winds of crooked and straight are mixed into the transformation of Heaven and Earth, born of transformation and then mixing back into transformation, linked with the threading through. The Spring and Autumn takes up the way of worldly affairs. Some of it writes of Heaven, whether fully or not, which is the king's responsibility. The Book of Songs, 'Da Ming' in the Greater Odes, says: 'Heaven is hard to trust; it is not easy to be king.' This is what it means. A king cannot but know Heaven. To know Heaven is what poets find hard. Heaven's intention is hard to see and its Way is hard to govern. So make clear where yin and yang enter and leave and where there is fullness or emptiness, in order to observe Heaven's will; distinguish the root and branch, accord and opposition, small and great, wide and narrow of the five phases, in order to observe Heaven's Way.

天志仁，其道也義，為人主者，予奪生殺，各當其義，若四時；列官置吏，必以其能，若五行；好仁惡戾，任德遠刑，若陰陽；此之謂能配天。天者，其道長萬物，而王者長人；人主之大，天地之參也；好惡之分，陰陽之理也；喜怒之發，寒暑之比也；官職之事，五行之義也；以此長天地之間，蕩四海之內，殽陰陽之氣，與天地相雜，是故人言既曰：王者參天地矣，苟參天地，則是化矣，豈獨天地之精哉！王者亦參而殽之，治則以正氣殽天地之化，亂則以邪氣殽天地之化，同者相益，異者相損之數也，無可疑者矣。

Heaven's will is benevolence, and its Way is righteousness. One who is a ruler gives and takes, gives life and kills, each in accord with righteousness, like the four seasons; he arranges officials and sets up clerks, always according to their abilities, like the five phases; he likes benevolence and hates cruelty, employs virtue and keeps punishment far, like yin and yang. This is called able to match Heaven. Heaven's Way is to nurture the ten thousand things, and a king nurtures people. The greatness of the ruler is that he matches Heaven and Earth; the distinction of his likes and dislikes is the principle of yin and yang; the issuing of joy and anger is the analogue of cold and heat; the affairs of office are the righteousness of the five phases. By this he nurtures what lies between Heaven and Earth, washes the world within the four seas, and mixes the qi of yin and yang, blending with Heaven and Earth. So the person said already: a king matches Heaven and Earth. If he matches Heaven and Earth, then this is transformation, not merely the essence of Heaven and Earth! A king also matches them and mixes with it: in order, he mixes the correct qi into the transformation of Heaven and Earth; in disorder, he mixes the wicked qi into it. Like things add to one another and unlike things subtract from one another; this is the number, and there is nothing doubtful about it.

天道施，地道化，人道義，聖人見端而知本，精之至也，得一而應萬類之治也。動其本者，不知靜其末，受其始者，不能辭其終，利者，盜之本也，妄者，亂之始也，夫受亂之始，動盜之本，而欲民之靜，不可得也。故君子非禮而不言，非禮而不動；好色而無禮則流，飲食而無禮則爭，流爭則亂。夫禮，體情而防亂者也，民之情不能制其欲，使之度禮，目視正色，耳聽正聲，口食正味，身行正道，非奪之情也，所以安其情也。變謂之情，雖持異物，性亦然者，故曰內也，變變之變，謂之外，故雖以情，然不為性說，故曰外物之動性，若神之不守也，積習漸靡物之微者也，其入人不知，習忘乃為常然若性，不可不察也。純知輕思則慮達，節慾順行則倫得，以諫爭?靜為宅，以禮義為道則文德，是故至誠遺物而不與變，躬寬無爭而不以與俗推，眾強弗能入，蜩蛻瘻穢之中，含得命施之理，與萬物頡徙而不自失者，聖人之心也。

The Way of Heaven is giving, the Way of Earth is transforming, and the Way of humans is righteousness. The sage sees the beginning and knows the root, which is the utmost of refinement; having obtained the one, he can answer the governing of ten thousand kinds. Those who set the root in motion do not know how to make the branch still; those who receive the beginning cannot decline the end. Profit is the root of banditry, and recklessness is the beginning of disorder. To receive the beginning of disorder and set the root of banditry in motion yet wish the people to be quiet cannot be done. So the gentleman does not speak words contrary to ritual and does not act contrary to ritual. Fondness for beauty without ritual leads to dissipation; eating and drinking without ritual leads to quarrels; dissipation and quarrels lead to disorder. Ritual examines feeling and prevents disorder. The people's feelings cannot restrain their desires, so we make them take ritual as measure: the eyes see correct colors, the ears hear correct sounds, the mouth eats correct flavors, the body walks the correct way; this is not seizing their feelings but is settling their feelings. What is changed is called feeling, and even when holding alien things the nature is like this, so it is said to be inner. The change of changing again is called outer. So even if following feeling, the nature is not pleased by it, so it is said external things stir the nature, as when the spirit does not stay at home. Accumulated habit gradually soaks in; it is a subtle part of things, entering people without their knowing, and when habit is forgotten it is taken as constant like nature, which must be examined. With pure knowing and slight thought, reflection reaches through; restraining desires and following practice, order is obtained. Make remonstrance and stillness one's home (a character is missing in the source text after transcription) and take ritual and righteousness as the Way, and one has cultured virtue. So the utterly sincere casts off external things and does not change with them, is generous in himself and does not quarrel, and does not move with the world. A multitude of strong ones cannot enter, like a cicada shedding its skin amid filth, containing the principle of destiny's giving, moving and shifting together with the ten thousand things without losing himself; this is the sage's heart.

名者，所以別物也，親者重，疏者輕，尊者文，卑者質，近者詳，遠者略，文辭不隱情，明情不遺文，人心從之而不逆，古今通貫而不亂，名之義也。男女猶道也，人生別言禮義，名號之由，人事起也，不順天道，謂之不義，察天人之分，觀道命之異，可以知禮之說矣。見善者不能無好，見不善者不能無惡，好惡不能堅守，故有人道，人道者，人之所由、樂而不亂、復而不厭者。萬物載名而生，聖人因其象而命之，然而可易也，皆有義從也，故正名以名義也，物也者，洪名也，皆名也，而物有私名，此物也非夫物。故曰：萬物動而不形者，意也，形而不易者，德也，樂而不亂，復而不厭者，道也。

Names are used to distinguish things. For the close, weight is given; for the distant, lightness; for the honored, there is ornament; for the lowly, plainness; for the near, detail; for the far, brevity. Wording does not hide feeling, and making feeling clear does not omit ornament. People's hearts follow it and do not go against it, and it threads through ancient and modern without disorder; this is the righteousness of names. Male and female are like the Way. When people are born they distinguish and practice ritual and righteousness; this is how names and titles come about and human affairs arise. Not following the Way of Heaven is called unrighteousness. Examine the boundary between Heaven and humans, observe the difference between Way and fate, and one can know the account of ritual. One who sees good cannot but like it, and one who sees what is not good cannot but dislike it. If likes and dislikes cannot be firmly kept, there is the human Way. The human Way is that which people pass through, enjoying without disorder, repeating without weariness. The ten thousand things carry names and live, and the sage names according to their image. Yet they can be changed, and in every case there is a righteousness to follow. So rectifying names uses the righteousness of names. A 'thing' is a vast name, and all are names; but things have private names, that is, this thing is not that thing. So it is said: what moves and does not take form is intention; what takes form and does not change is virtue; what is enjoyed without disorder and repeated without weariness is the Way.