Royal Regulations

曾子問曰：“大夫之祭，鼎俎既陳，籩豆既設，不得成禮，廢者幾？”孔子曰：“九。”請問之，曰：“天子崩，後之喪，君薨，夫人之喪，君之大廟火，日食，三年之喪，齊衰，大功，皆廢。外喪自齊衰以下，行也。其齊衰之祭也，屍入，三飯不侑，酳不酢而已矣。大功，酢而已矣。小功，緦，室中之事而已矣。士之所以異者，緦不祭，所祭，於死者無服，則祭。”

Zengzi asked: "In a grand master's sacrifice, when the cauldrons and trays have been set out and the vessels placed, and the ritual cannot be completed, in how many cases is it abandoned?" Confucius said: "Nine." He asked what they were, and he said: "The Son of Heaven's death, the queen's mourning, the ruler's death, the ruler's consort's mourning, a fire in the ruler's grand temple, a solar eclipse, the three-year mourning, and mourning of the second and third degree; all are abandoned. An outer mourning, from the second degree downward, is carried out. In the sacrifice at the time of second-degree mourning, the impersonator enters, eats three mouthfuls without being urged, and rinses his mouth with wine without being toasted in return, and that is all. For the third degree, he is toasted in return, and that is all. For the fourth and fifth degrees, only the affairs within the chamber are done. Scholars differ in this: they do not sacrifice for the lightest mourning; they sacrifice for those whom the deceased wore no mourning for."

曾子問曰：“三年之喪，吊乎？”孔子曰：“三年之喪，練不群立，不旅行。君子禮以飾情，三年之喪而吊哭，不亦虛乎？”

Zengzi asked: "In the three-year mourning, does one go to offer condolences?" Confucius said: "In the three-year mourning, after the refined sacrifice one does not stand with the crowd and does not go out in company. The noble person uses ritual to give form to feeling; to go and wail in condolence during the three-year mourning would not that also be hollow?"

曾子問曰：“大夫士有私喪，可以除之矣，而有君服焉，其除之也，如之何？”孔子曰：“有君喪，服於身，不敢私服，又何除焉？於是乎有過時而弗除也。君之喪服除，而後殷祭，禮也。”

Zengzi asked: "When a grandee or a scholar has a private mourning that is due to be taken off, but he is still wearing mourning for his lord, what should be done about taking it off?" Confucius said: "When there is mourning for the lord, one wears it on one's person and does not dare put on private mourning dress; so what is there to take off? Thus there are cases where the time passes and it is not taken off. After the lord's mourning dress is removed, one performs the grand sacrifice; this is ritual propriety."

曾子問曰：“父母之喪，弗除可乎？”孔子曰：“先王制禮，過時弗舉，禮也。非弗能勿除也，患其過於制也。故君子過時不祭，禮也。”

Zengzi asked: "May the mourning for one's parents be left untaken off?" Confucius said: "When the former kings established the rites, if the time had passed the rite was not performed; this is ritual propriety. It is not that one could not leave it on, but that one worries about exceeding the regulation. Therefore the noble man does not sacrifice once the time has passed; this is ritual propriety."

曾子問曰：“君薨既殯，而臣有父母之喪，則如之何？”孔子曰：“歸居於家，有殷事，則之君所，朝夕否。”曰：“君既啟，而臣有父母之喪，則如之何？”孔子曰：“歸哭而反送君。”曰：“君未殯，而臣有父母之喪，則如之何？”孔子曰：“歸殯，反於君所，有殷事則歸，朝夕否。大夫室老行事，士則子孫行事。大夫內子有殷事，亦之君所，朝夕否。”

Zengzi asked: "If the lord has died and been placed in the coffin, and a minister has mourning for his parents, what should he do?" Confucius said: "He returns home to stay there; when there is a major rite he goes to the lord, but he does not attend the morning and evening offerings." Zengzi said: "If the lord's coffin has already been opened for burial, and a minister has mourning for his parents, what should he do?" Confucius said: "He goes home to wail, and then returns to see off the lord." Zengzi said: "If the lord has not yet been placed in the coffin and a minister has mourning for his parents, what should he do?" Confucius said: "He goes home to place his parent in the coffin, and returns to the lord. When there is a major rite he goes, but he does not attend the morning and evening offerings. A grandee has his chief steward handle matters; a scholar has his sons and grandsons handle them. When a grandee's principal wife has a major rite, she also goes to the lord, but does not attend the morning and evening offerings."

賤不誄貴，幼不誄長，禮也。唯天子稱天以誄之。諸侯相誄，非禮也。

A person of low rank does not compose a eulogy for a person of high rank, and a younger person does not compose a eulogy for an elder; this is ritual propriety. Only the Son of Heaven composes a eulogy in the name of Heaven. For feudal lords to compose eulogies for one another is not proper.

曾子問曰：“君出疆，以三年之戒，以椑從，君薨其入，如之何？”孔子曰：“共殯服，則子麻弁絰，疏衰，菲，杖，入自闕，升自西階。如小斂，則子免而從柩，入自門，升自阼階。君大夫士一節也。”

Zengzi asked: "When the lord goes beyond his borders, he is accompanied by the three-year preparations, with a light coffin following him. If the lord dies and is brought back in, what should be done?" Confucius said: "When the burial garments are supplied, the sons wear a hemp cap with a mourning band, coarse mourning robes, straw sandals and a staff; they enter by a breach in the wall and ascend by the western steps. If it is the lesser dressing of the corpse, the sons take off their caps and follow the coffin, entering by the gate and ascending by the eastern steps. The ritual is the same for lord, grandee and scholar."

曾子問曰：“君之喪既引，聞父母之喪，如之何？”孔子曰：“遂既封而歸，不俟子。”曾子問曰：“父母之喪既引，及塗，聞君薨，如之何？”孔子曰：“遂既封，改服而往。”

Zengzi asked: "When the lord's funeral cortege has already been drawn out, and one hears of the death of one's parent, what should be done?" Confucius said: "One continues until the coffin is lowered, then returns home, without waiting for the filial son." Zengzi asked: "If a parent's funeral cortege has already been drawn out and is on the road, and one hears that the lord has died, what should be done?" Confucius said: "One continues until the coffin is lowered, then changes clothes and goes to the lord."

曾子問曰：“宗子為士，庶子為大夫，其祭也如之何？”孔子曰：“以上牲祭於宗子之家，祝曰：孝子某，為介子某，薦其常事。若宗子有罪，居於他國，庶子為大夫，其祭也，祝曰：孝子某，使介子某，執其常事。攝主不厭祭，不旅不假，不綏祭，不配，布奠於賓，賓奠而不舉，不歸肉，其辭於賓曰：宗兄，宗弟，宗子，在他國，使某辭。”

Zengzi asked: "If the heir of the main line is a scholar and a secondary son is a grandee, how should the sacrifice be conducted?" Confucius said: "One sacrifices at the heir's house using the higher grade of victim, and the invocator says: 'The filial son so-and-so, on behalf of his secondary brother so-and-so, presents this regular service.' If the heir has committed an offense and lives in another state, and a secondary son is a grandee, then at the sacrifice the invocator says: 'The filial son so-and-so, sending his secondary brother so-and-so, carries out this regular service.' The acting sacrificer does not perform the satisfying offering, does not hold the pledging round of cups, does not send blessed meat, does not offer the sui sacrifice, and does not make the joint offering. He places the offering at the guest's seat, and the guest places it but does not lift it, and the meat is not sent back. The words of declining to the guest are: 'The senior brother, the junior brother, the heir of the main line being in another state, has sent so-and-so to say this declination.'"

曾子問曰：“宗子去在他國，庶子無爵而居者，可以祭乎？”孔子曰：“祭哉！”“請問其祭如之何？”孔子曰：“望墓而為壇，以時祭。若宗子死，告於墓，而後祭於家。宗子死，稱名不言孝，身沒而已。子游之徒，有庶子祭者，以此，若義也。今之祭者，不首其義，故誣於祭也。”

Zengzi asked: "If the heir of the main line has left and lives in another state, may a secondary son who has no rank and stays at home sacrifice?" Confucius said: "He sacrifices!" "May I ask how the sacrifice should be done?" Confucius said: "He builds an altar facing the grave and sacrifices at the proper seasons. If the heir of the main line has died, he reports to the grave and then sacrifices at home. After the heir has died, he gives his name and does not say 'filial,' and the practice ends with his own death. Among the followers of Ziyou, there were secondary sons who sacrificed, and they followed this, which seems to be right. Those who sacrifice nowadays do not seek out the meaning, so their sacrifices are false."

曾子問曰：“祭必有屍乎？若厭祭亦可乎？”孔子曰：“祭成喪者必有屍，屍必以孫，孫幼則使人抱之，無孫則取於同姓可也。祭殤必厭，蓋弗成也。祭成喪而無屍，是殤之也。”孔子曰：“有陰厭，有陽厭。”曾子問曰：“殤不祔祭，何謂陰厭陽厭？”孔子曰：“宗子為殤而死，庶子弗為後也，其吉祭特牲，祭殤不舉，無肵俎，無玄酒，不告利成，是謂陰厭。凡殤與無後者，祭於宗子之家，當室之白，尊於東房，是謂陽厭。”

Zengzi asked: "Must a sacrifice always have an impersonator of the dead? If one makes only the satisfying offering, is that acceptable?" Confucius said: "When sacrificing for an adult who has died, there must be an impersonator, and the impersonator must be a grandson. If the grandson is young, someone is sent to carry him. If there is no grandson, one may take someone of the same surname. When sacrificing for one who died young, one must make the satisfying offering, probably because he did not reach maturity. If one sacrifices to an adult without an impersonator, it treats him as one who died young." Confucius said: "There is the dark satisfying offering and the bright satisfying offering." Zengzi asked: "One who died young has no joint sacrifice with his ancestors; what are the dark and bright satisfying offerings?" Confucius said: "If the heir of the main line died young and a secondary son is not made his successor, then the auspicious sacrifice uses a single victim. In sacrificing for one who died young, one does not lift up the lung, there is no sacrificial tray of the victim, no dark liquor, and one does not announce that the service is complete; this is called the dark satisfying offering. In all cases of those who died young and those with no heirs, the sacrifice is held at the heir's house, directly in the bright part of the main room, with the wine vessel placed in the eastern chamber; this is called the bright satisfying offering."

曾子問曰：“葬引至於堩，日有食之，則有變乎，且不乎？”孔子曰：“昔者吾從老聃助葬於巷黨，及堩，日有食之，老聃曰：‘丘，止柩就道右，止哭以聽變。’既明反，而後行，曰：‘禮也。’反葬而丘問之，曰：‘夫柩不可以反者也，日有食之，不知其已之遲數，則豈如行哉？’老聃曰：‘諸侯朝天子，見日而行，逮日而舍奠。大夫使，見日而行，逮日而舍。夫柩不蚤出，不莫宿，見星而行者，唯罪人與奔父母之喪者乎？日有食之，安知其不見星也？且君子行禮，不以人之親痁患。’吾聞諸老聃雲。”

Zengzi asked: "When a funeral procession is drawn out onto the road and a solar eclipse occurs, is there a changed rite, or not?" Confucius said: "Long ago I followed Lao Dan in assisting at a burial in Xiangdang, and when we reached the road a solar eclipse occurred. Lao Dan said: 'Qiu, halt the coffin and draw it to the right side of the road, stop wailing, and wait to see what happens.' When it became bright again, he had us turn back and proceed, saying: 'This is ritual propriety.' After we returned and the burial was done, I asked him: 'A coffin must not be turned back. With an eclipse we cannot know how soon it will end, so would it not be better simply to go on?' Lao Dan said: 'When feudal lords go to court the Son of Heaven, they set out only after seeing the sun, and hurry to halt and make their offerings for the night when the sun sets. When a grandee goes on a mission, he sets out only after seeing the sun and halts for the night when the sun sets. A coffin does not set out early or lodge late. Those who still travel when they see the stars are only criminals and those hurrying to a parent's funeral. When an eclipse occurs, how do you know the stars will not appear? Moreover, when a noble man performs a rite, he does not expose other people's relatives to calamity.' This I heard from Lao Dan."

曾子問曰：“為君使而卒於舍，禮曰：‘公館復，私館不復。’凡所使之國，有司所授舍，則公館己，何謂私館不復也？”孔子曰：“善乎問之也！自卿大夫之家曰私館，公館與公所為曰公館，公館復，此之謂也。”

Zengzi asked: "If someone dies in the guesthouse while on a mission for his lord, the rites say: 'At a public guesthouse one calls back the soul; at a private guesthouse one does not.' But in any state where one is sent, the guesthouse assigned by the officials is a public guesthouse, so why is it said that one does not call back the soul at a private guesthouse?" Confucius said: "A good question! A guesthouse from the household of a minister or grandee is called a private guesthouse; a public guesthouse is one built by the ruler's state. 'At a public guesthouse one calls back the soul' refers to this."

曾子問曰：“下殤土周葬於園，遂輿機而往，塗邇故也。今墓遠，則其葬也如之何？”孔子曰：“吾聞諸老聃曰：‘昔者史佚有子而死，下殤也，墓遠，召公謂之曰：何以不棺斂於宮中？史佚曰：吾敢乎哉？召公言於周公，周公曰：豈不可？史佚行之。’下殤用棺衣棺．自史佚始也。”

Zengzi asked: "For a child who died in the lowest category of youth, one buries him surrounded by bricks in the garden and carries him on a bier-frame there, because the road is near. But now the grave is far; how should the burial be done?" Confucius said: "I heard from Lao Dan: 'Long ago Shi Yi had a son who died in the lowest category of youth, and the grave was far away. Duke Shao said to him: Why not encoffin him in the house? Shi Yi said: How would I dare? Duke Shao told the Duke of Zhou, and the Duke of Zhou said: Why not? So Shi Yi did so.' The practice of placing one who died in the lowest category of youth in a coffin with clothing began with Shi Yi."

曾子問曰：“卿大夫將為屍於公，受宿矣，而有齊衰內喪，則如之何？”孔子曰：“出舍於公館以待事，禮也。”孔子曰：“屍弁冕而出，卿大夫士皆下之，屍必式，必有前驅。”

Zengzi asked: "When a minister or grandee is about to serve as the impersonator of the dead at the ruler's sacrifice and has already received the notice of fasting, but a mourning of the second degree occurs in his household, what should he do?" Confucius said: "He goes out and stays at the public guesthouse to await the service; this is ritual propriety." Confucius said: "When the impersonator comes out wearing the cap and ceremonial dress, ministers, grandees and scholars all get down from their carriages; the impersonator must lean on the carriage rail, and must have outriders in front."

子夏問曰：“三年之喪卒哭，金革之事無闢也者，禮與？初有司與？”孔子曰：“夏后氏三年之喪，既殯而致事。殷人既葬而致事。記曰：‘君子不奪人之親，亦不可奪親也。’此之謂乎？”子夏曰：“金革之事無闢也者，非與？”孔子曰：“吾聞諸老聃曰：‘昔者魯公伯禽，有為為之也。’今以三年之喪從其利者，吾弗知也。”

Zixia asked: "After the weeping ceases in the three-year mourning, one does not avoid military matters, such as weapons and armor. Is this ritual propriety, or an arrangement of the officials at the start?" Confucius said: "In the Xia dynasty, in the three-year mourning, once the coffin was placed, one returned to one's duties. The Yin people returned to their duties once the burial was done. The record says: 'The noble man does not take away another's family feeling, and also cannot let it be taken from himself.' Is it not this that is meant?" Zixia said: "So not avoiding military matters is not right?" Confucius said: "I heard from Lao Dan: 'Long ago Boqin, Duke of Lu, did it because he had something to accomplish.' Now people borrow the three-year mourning to pursue profit; this I do not understand."

文王之為世子，朝於王季日三。雞初鳴而衣服，至於寢門外，問內豎之御者曰：“今日安否？何如？”內豎曰：“安。”文王乃喜。及日中又至，亦如之，及莫又至，亦如之。其有不安節，則內豎以告文王，文王色憂，行不能正履。王季復膳，然後亦復初。食上，必在視寒暖之節，食下，問所膳，命膳宰曰：“末有原。”應曰：“諾。”然後退。武王帥而行之，不敢有加焉。文王有疾，武王不說冠帶而養。文王一飯，亦一飯，文王再飯，亦再飯，旬有二日乃間。文王謂武王曰：“女何夢矣？”武王對曰：“夢帝與我九齡。”文王曰：“女以為何也？”武王曰：“西方有九國焉，君王其終撫諸。”文王曰：“非也。古者謂年齡，齒亦齡也，我百，爾九十，吾與爾三焉。”文王九十七乃終，武王九十三而終。成王幼，不能蒞阼，周公相，踐阼而治，抗世子法於伯禽，欲令成王之知父子君臣長幼之道也。成王有過，則撻伯禽，所以示成王世子之道也，文王之為世子也。

When King Wen was crown prince, he paid his respects to King Ji three times a day. At the first cockcrow he put on his clothes and went to the gate of the bedchamber, and asked the attendant on duty: "Is he well today? How is he?" If the attendant said "He is well," King Wen was pleased. At noon he came again and did the same; at dusk he came again and did the same. If there was any unwellness, the attendant told King Wen, whose face showed worry and who could not walk steadily. When King Ji resumed his meals, then King Wen also resumed his. When the meal was brought in, he was always present to check that it was neither too cold nor too hot; when it was taken away, he asked what had been eaten, and told the chief cook: "Do not serve the leftovers again." The cook answered: "Yes." Only then did he withdraw. King Wu followed and practiced this, not daring to add to it. When King Wen was ill, King Wu attended him without taking off his cap and sash. If King Wen ate one mouthful, he ate one; if King Wen ate two, he ate two. After twelve days the illness lifted. King Wen said to King Wu: "What did you dream?" King Wu replied: "I dreamed that God gave me nine ling." King Wen said: "What do you take it to mean?" King Wu said: "In the west there are nine states; Your Majesty will in the end bring them peace." King Wen said: "Not so. In ancient times a year was called a ling, and so were teeth. I am a hundred, you are ninety, and I give you three years." King Wen died at ninety-seven, and King Wu at ninety-three. King Cheng was young and could not mount the eastern steps to take charge of affairs, so the Duke of Zhou served as his assistant and mounted the eastern steps to govern, and applied the rules for the crown prince to Bo Qin, wanting King Cheng to know the Way of father and son, ruler and minister, old and young. When King Cheng made a mistake, Bo Qin was beaten, in order to show King Cheng the way of being a crown prince. This is what King Wen did when he was crown prince.

凡學世子，及學士，必時。春夏學干戈，秋冬學羽鑰，皆於東序。小樂正學幹，大胥贊之，鑰師學戈，鑰師丞贊之，胥鼓南。春誦，夏弦，大師詔之瞽宗。秋學禮，執禮者詔之。冬讀書，典書者詔之。禮在瞽宗，書在上庠。

In all teaching of the crown prince and of the scholars, it must follow the seasons. In spring and summer they study the shield and spear dances, in autumn and winter the feather and flute dances, all in the Eastern Hall. The junior music director teaches the shield dance, with the senior assistant helping; the flute master teaches the spear dance, with the flute master's aide helping; the assistant beats the drum and sings the Southern songs. In spring they recite, in summer they play stringed instruments, and the grand master gives instruction at the Hall of the Blind Musicians. In autumn they study ritual, and the officiant of rites gives instruction. In winter they read documents, and the keeper of documents gives instruction. Ritual is taught at the Hall of the Blind Musicians; documents are taught at the Upper Academy.

凡祭與養老，乞言合語之禮，皆小樂正詔之於東序。大樂正學舞干鏚，語說，命乞言，皆大樂正授數，大司成論說在東序。

For all the rites of sacrifice, of caring for the aged, of requesting words of advice from them, and of joint discussion, the junior music director gives instruction in the Eastern Hall. The senior music director teaches the shield and axe dance. For the explanation of the discourse and for requesting advice, the senior music director gives the number of measures, and the Grand Director of Studies expounds in the Eastern Hall.

凡侍坐於大司成者，遠近間三席，可以問，終則負牆，列事未盡不問。

Those who sit in attendance with the Grand Director of Studies should leave a gap of three mats near or far, so that questions may be asked; once finished asking, they lean back against the wall. If a matter has not yet been fully set out, they do not ask.

凡學春官釋奠於其先師，秋冬亦如之。凡始立學者，必釋奠於先聖先師，及行事必以幣。凡釋奠者，必有合也，有國故則否。

In all teaching, the officer of spring makes the offering to the former teachers, and so too in autumn and winter. Whenever a school is first established, one must make the offering to the former sages and former teachers, and in doing so one must use silk gifts. Whenever the offering is made, there must be a joint musical performance; if the state has some misfortune, it is not used.

凡大合樂，必遂養老。凡語於郊者，必取賢斂才焉，或以德進，或以事舉，或以言揚。曲藝皆誓之，以待又語，三而一有焉，乃進其等，以其序，謂之郊人。遠之，於成均，以及取爵於上尊也。

In every large joint musical performance, it must be followed by the feast for the aged. In all debates at the district school, one must select the worthy, who are promoted for virtue, or for accomplishments, or distinguished for words. Those with minor skills are all admonished and wait for the next debate. If, among three occasions, there is one that is acceptable, then they are promoted in rank in order and are called men of the outskirts. They are kept at a distance, and on reaching the Chengjun, they may take the cup at the honored place in the hall.

始立學者，既興器用幣，然後釋菜。不舞不授器，乃退，儐於東序。一獻，無介語可也。教世子。

When a school is first established, after the offerings and silk gifts have been displayed, the vegetable offering is made. There is no dancing and no dance implements are handed out; then they withdraw and perform the guest ritual in the Eastern Hall. One toast, with no assistant, and no joint discussion is also acceptable. This is the teaching of the crown prince.

凡三王教世子，必以禮樂。樂所以修內也，禮所以修外也。禮樂交錯於中，發形於外，是故其成也懌，恭敬而溫文。立大傅少傅以養之，欲其知父子君臣之道也。大傅審父子君臣之道以示之，少傅奉世子，以觀大傅之德行而審喻之。大傅在前，少傅在後，入則有保，出則有師，是以教喻而德成也。師也者，教之以事，而喻諸德者也。保也者，慎其身以輔翼之，而歸諸道者也。記曰：虞、夏、商、周有師保，有疑丞，設四輔，及三公，不必備，唯其人。語使能也。君子曰：德，德成而教尊，教尊而官正，官正而國治。君之謂也。仲尼曰：“昔者周公攝政，踐阼而治，抗世子法於伯禽，所以善成王也。聞之曰：為人臣者，殺其身，有益於君，則為之。況於其身以善其君乎？周公優為之，是故知為人子，然後可以為人父，知為人臣，然後可以為人君，知事人，然後能使人。成王幼，不能蒞阼，以為世子則無為也，是故抗世子法於伯禽，使之與成王居，欲令成王之知父子君臣長幼之義也。君之於世子也，親則父也，尊則君也。有父之親，有君之尊，然後兼天下而有之。是故養世子不可不慎也。行一物而三善皆得者，唯世子而已。”其齒於學之謂也。故世子齒於學，國人觀之曰：“將君我，而與我齒讓，何也？”曰：“有父在，則禮然。”然而眾知父子之道矣。其二曰：“將君我。而與我齒讓。何也？”曰：“有君在，則禮然。”然而眾著於君臣之義也。其三曰：“將君我，而與我齒讓，何也？”曰：“長長也。”然而眾知長幼之節矣。故父在斯為子，君在斯謂之臣，居子與臣之節，所以尊君親親也。故學之為父子焉，學之為君臣焉，學之為長幼焉。父子君臣長幼之道得而國治。語曰：“樂正司業，父師司成，一有元良，萬國以貞。”世子之謂也。周公踐阼。

In all cases when kings of the Three Dynasties taught the crown prince, they used ritual and music. Music is used to cultivate the inside, and ritual is used to cultivate the outside. Ritual and music interact within and then issue forth outside, so that upon accomplishment he is joyful, reverent and gentle. A Grand Tutor and a Junior Tutor are appointed to nurture him, wanting him to know the Way of father and son, ruler and minister. The Grand Tutor examines the Way of father and son, ruler and minister in order to set the model, and the Junior Tutor serves the crown prince, observing the Grand Tutor's conduct and carefully instructing him. The Grand Tutor is in front and the Junior Tutor is behind; when he enters there is a guardian, and when he goes out there is a teacher, so he is taught and his virtue is accomplished. A teacher is one who teaches through affairs and makes his virtue known to him. A guardian is one who guards his person with care, assists him and returns him to the Way. The record says: Yu, Xia, Shang and Zhou had teachers and guardians, had counselors and assistants, and established the four aides and the three dukes; these need not all be present, but depend on the person. This means using those with ability. The noble man says: With virtue, virtue is accomplished and teaching is honored; with honored teaching, officials are upright; with upright officials, the state is well governed. This speaks of the ruler. Zhongni said: "Long ago the Duke of Zhou acted as regent, mounted the eastern steps to govern, and applied the rules for the crown prince to Bo Qin, in order to make King Cheng accomplished. I have heard that a minister who sacrifices his person for the benefit of his ruler will do so; how much more so one who uses his person to bring his ruler to accomplishment? The Duke of Zhou did it with ease." So one who knows how to be a son can then be a father; one who knows how to be a minister can then be a ruler; one who knows how to serve people can then direct people. King Cheng was young and could not mount the steps; to treat him as crown prince gave nothing to be done, so the rules for the crown prince were applied to Bo Qin, who lived with King Cheng, wanting King Cheng to know the principles of father and son, ruler and minister, old and young. In relation to the crown prince, the ruler is a father by kinship and a ruler by honor. Having the closeness of a father and the honor of a ruler, he then possesses the whole world. Therefore one must not fail to be careful in nurturing the crown prince. To do one thing and gain three goods is something only the crown prince does. This refers to ranking by age at school. So when the crown prince ranks by age at school, the people of the state see it and say: "He will be our ruler, yet he yields to us by age; why?" The answer: "When his father is alive, the rite is thus." Then the people know the Way of father and son. The second time they say: "He will be our ruler, yet he yields to us by age; why?" The answer: "When the ruler is alive, the rite is thus." Then the people understand the principle of ruler and minister. The third time they say: "He will be our ruler, yet he yields to us by age; why?" The answer: "It is respect for elders." Then the people know the measure between old and young. So when the father is alive he is a son, and when the ruler is alive he is called a minister; standing within the measure of son and minister, he honors the ruler and loves his kin. Therefore he learns to be a father and son, learns to be a ruler and minister, learns to be old and young. When the Way of father and son, ruler and minister, old and young is attained, the state is well governed. The Sayings say: "The music director oversees studies, the father-teacher oversees accomplishment; when there is one man of great goodness, the ten thousand states are set right by him." This speaks of the crown prince. The Duke of Zhou mounted the eastern steps.

庶子之正於公族者，教之以孝弟睦友子愛，明父子之義、長幼之序。其朝於公，內朝，則東面北上，臣有貴者以齒。其在外朝，則以官，司士為之。其在宗廟之中，則如外朝之位，宗人授事，以爵以官，其登餕獻受爵，則以上嗣。庶子治之，雖有三命，不踰父兄。其公大事，則以其喪服之精麤為序，雖於公族之喪亦如之，以次主人。若公與族燕，則異姓為賓，膳宰為主人，公與父兄齒，族食世降一等。

The officers over the secondary sons who correct the ducal clan teach them filial piety, brotherly respect, harmony, friendship and kindness, and make clear the principle of father and son and the order of old and young. When they attend the duke at court: at the inner court, they face east with north as the higher position, and among the ministers, the noble are also ranked by age. At the outer court, they are ranked by office, arranged by the Master of Scholars. In the ancestral temple, they take the same positions as at the outer court, the clan officer assigns tasks, by rank and by office; for ascending the hall to eat the leftovers, to offer, and to receive the cup, they use the eldest legitimate heir. The secondary sons manage these things, and even if they hold the third degree of appointment, they do not exceed their fathers and elder brothers. For major affairs of the ducal house, they are ordered by the fineness or coarseness of the mourning dress, and the same is true even of the ducal clan's mourning, in which they stand next to the chief mourner. If the duke has a banquet with clan members, then those of other surnames act as guests and the chief cook as host, and the duke and his fathers and elder brothers are ranked by age, while at clan meals the portion is reduced by one grade with each generation down.

其在軍，則守於公禰。公若有出疆之政，庶子以公族之無事者守於公宮，正室守大廟，諸父守貴宮貴室，諸子諸孫守下宮下室。

In the army, they guard the transferred spirit tablets of the duke's temple. If the duke has affairs of government beyond the borders, the secondary sons arrange for those of the ducal clan who have no duties to guard the duke's palace, the eldest legitimate sons to guard the Grand Temple, the uncles and paternal elders to guard the honored palace and rooms, and the various sons and grandsons to guard the lower palace and rooms.

五廟之孫，祖廟未毀，雖為庶人，冠、取妻必告，死必赴，練祥則告。族之相為也，宜吊不弔，宜免不免，有司罰之。至於賵賻承含，皆有正焉。公族其有死罪，則磬於甸人。其刑罪，則纖剸，亦告於甸人。公族無宮刑。獄成，有司讞於公，其死罪，則曰：“某之罪在大辟。”其刑罪，則曰：“某之罪在小闢。”公曰：“宥之。”有司又曰：“在闢。”公又曰：“宥之。”有司又曰：“在闢。”及三宥不對，走出，致刑于甸人。公又使人追之，曰：“雖然，必赦之。”有司對曰：“無及也。”反命於公，公素服不舉，為之變。如其倫之喪，無服，親哭之。

For descendants of the five temples, as long as the ancestral temple has not yet been demolished, even if they have become commoners, they must report when they perform the capping or take a wife, must report a death, and must report the first and second anniversary rites. When clan members deal with each other, if they fail to condole when they should, or fail to take off their caps in mourning when they should, the officials punish them. As for gifts of carriages and horses, funeral contributions, gifts of clothing and jade for the mouth, all have regulations. If a member of the ducal clan commits a capital offense, he is strangled at the gardener's place. If he has a penal offense, he is stabbed or cut, and this too is told to the gardener. There is no castration for the ducal clan. When the case is concluded, the officials discuss the sentence with the duke. For a capital offense they say: "So-and-so's offense is in the great punishment." For a penal offense they say: "So-and-so's offense is in the lesser punishment." The duke says: "Pardon him." The officials say again: "It is in the punishment." The duke says again: "Pardon him." The officials say again: "It is in the punishment." By the third pardon they no longer answer, and go out and carry out the punishment at the gardener's place. The duke sends someone after him to say: "Even so, he must be pardoned." The officials reply: "It is too late." They report back to the duke, who wears plain clothes and does not have music, changing the rites for him. As in the mourning for a relative of that degree, he does not wear mourning dress but personally wails for him.

公族朝於內朝，內親也，雖有貴者以齒，明父子也。外朝以官，體異姓也。宗廟之中，以爵為位，崇德也。宗人授事以官，尊賢也。登餕受爵以上嗣，尊祖之道也。喪紀以服之輕重為序，不奪人親也。公與族燕則以齒，而孝弟之道達矣。其族食世降一等，親親之殺也。戰則守於公禰，孝愛之深也。正室守大廟，尊宗室，而君臣之道著矣。諸父諸兄守貴室，子弟守下室，而讓道達矣。

That members of the ducal clan attend at the inner court is a sign of inner kinship, and even the noble are ranked by age, which makes clear the principle of father and son. At the outer court they are ranked by office, which is to include those of other surnames. In the ancestral temple they are positioned by rank, which honors virtue. That the clan officer assigns tasks by office honors the worthy. That the eldest legitimate heir ascends to eat the leftovers and receive the cup honors the Way of the ancestors. That funeral matters are ordered by the weight of the mourning dress means that one does not take away another's kinship. That at the duke's banquet with clan members they are ranked by age means that the Way of filial piety and brotherly respect reaches everywhere. That at clan meals the portion is reduced by one grade per generation is the gradual diminishing of affection for kin. That in war they guard the duke's transferred spirit tablets shows the depth of filial love. That the eldest legitimate son guards the Grand Temple and honors the ancestral house makes the Way of ruler and minister evident. That the uncles and elder brothers guard the honored rooms and the younger ones guard the lower rooms makes the Way of yielding reach everywhere.

五廟之孫，祖廟未毀，雖及庶人，冠、取妻必告，死必赴，不忘親也。親未絕而列於庶人，賤無能也。敬吊臨賻賵，睦友之道也。古者庶子之官治，而邦國有倫，邦國有倫，而眾鄉方矣。公族之罪，雖親不以犯有司，正術也，所以體百姓也。刑于隱者，不與國人慮兄弟也。弗吊，弗為服，哭於異姓之廟，為忝祖，遠之也。素服居外，不聽樂，私喪之也，骨肉之親無絕也。公族無宮刑，不翦其類也。

For descendants of the five temples, as long as the ancestral temple has not been demolished, even when they have become commoners, they must report when capped or taking a wife and report a death; this is not forgetting kinship. That kinship is not yet ended yet they are listed among commoners is a way of looking down on the incapable. Respectfully condoling, helping with funerals and giving carriages and horses are the Way of harmony and friendship. In ancient times, when the officers over the secondary sons governed well, the state had order; when the state had order, the people turned toward what is right. That the offenses of the ducal clan, even among kin, do not involve the officials in violating them is the proper legal method, used to embrace the common people. That punishment is carried out in a hidden place means that one does not plan with the people of the state about brothers. That one does not condole or wear mourning for him, and wails in the temple of another surname, because he has disgraced his ancestors, is to distance him. That the duke wears plain clothes and lives outside, not listening to music, is privately mourning for him, so that the bond of flesh and blood is not severed. That the ducal clan has no castration is not to cut off his kind.

天子視學，大昕鼓徵，所以警眾也。眾至，然後天子至，乃命有司行事，興秩節，祭先師先聖焉。有司卒事反命，始之養也。適東序，釋奠於先老，遂設三老五更群老之席位焉。適饌省醴，養老之珍具，遂發詠焉。退修之，以孝養也。反，登歌清廟，既歌而語，以成之也。言父子君臣長幼之道，合德音之致，禮之大者也。下管象，舞大武，大合眾以事，達有神，興有德也，正君臣之位，貴賤之等焉，而上下之義行矣。有司告以樂闋，王乃命公、侯、伯、子、男及群吏曰：“反養老幼於東序。”終之以仁也。

When the Son of Heaven inspects the schools, at first light the drum is beaten to summon, in order to rouse everyone. When the people have arrived, the Son of Heaven arrives, and then he commands the officials to carry out their tasks, performs the regular rites, and sacrifices to the former teachers and former sages. When the officials finish and report, the feast for the aged begins. At the Eastern Hall he makes the offering to the former elders, and then the seats of the Three Elders, the Five Seniors and the other elders are set out. He goes to the banquet mats to inspect the sweet wine; the delicacies for the aged are all prepared, and then songs are performed. He withdraws to prepare and nurtures them with filial piety. Returning, he mounts the hall, and the Qing Miao is sung; when the singing is finished there is conversation to bring it to completion. They speak of the Way of father and son, ruler and minister, old and young, uniting in the utmost of virtuous sound, which is the greatest of rites. Below the hall, the pipes play the Xiang and the Da Wu dance is performed; a great assembly gathers to do the work, communicating with the spirits and stirring up the virtuous, correcting the positions of ruler and minister and the ranks of noble and lowly, so the principle of high and low is put into effect. When the officials report the end of the music, the king then commands the dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts and barons, together with the various officials: "Go back and in the Eastern Hall care for the aged and nurture the young." He concludes with benevolence.

是故聖人之記事也，慮之以大，愛之以敬，行之以禮，修之以孝，養紀之以義，終之以仁。

Therefore the sage records affairs: with greatness he plans, with respect he loves, with ritual he acts, with filial piety he cultivates, with righteousness he regulates and nurtures, and with benevolence he concludes.

是故古之人一舉事，而眾皆知其德之備也。古之君子，舉大事必慎其終始，而眾安得不喻焉？兌命曰：念終始典於學。

Therefore, whenever the ancients undertook an affair, everyone knew that their virtue was complete. The noble men of old, in undertaking great affairs, were always careful from beginning to end; how could the people fail to understand? The Charge to Yue says: Keep beginning and end constantly in mind, and let your steady concern be learning.

世子之記曰：朝夕至於大寢之門外，問於內豎曰：“今日安否？何如？”內豎曰：“今日安。”世子乃有喜色。其有不安節，則內豎以告世子，世子色憂不滿容，內豎言復初，然後亦復初。朝夕之食上，世子必在視寒暖之節。食下，問所膳。羞必知所進，以命膳宰，然後退。若內豎言疾，則世子親齊玄而養，膳宰之饌，必敬視之，疾之藥，必親嘗之，嘗饌善，則世子亦能食，嘗饌寡，世子亦不能飽。以至於復初，然後亦復初。

The record of the crown prince says: Morning and evening he went to the gate of the great bedchamber and asked the attendant: "Is he well today? How is he?" If the attendant said: "He is well today," the crown prince looked pleased. If there was any unwellness, the attendant told the crown prince, whose face showed worry and whose countenance was dissatisfied. When the attendant said he had recovered as before, then the crown prince too returned to normal. When the morning and evening meals were brought in, the crown prince was always present to check that they were neither too cold nor too hot. When the meal was taken away, he asked what had been eaten. For the delicacies presented, he must know what was offered, and he gave orders to the chief cook, and then withdrew. If the attendant said he was ill, the crown prince personally put on dark fasting clothes to attend him. He respectfully inspected the cook's dishes, and personally tasted the medicine for the illness. If he tasted that the food was good, the crown prince could eat too; if he found the food was scant, the crown prince could not eat his fill. This continued until his father had recovered as before, and then he too returned to normal.

昔者仲尼與於蠟賓，事畢，出遊於觀之上，喟然而嘆。仲尼之嘆，蓋嘆魯也。言偃在側，曰：“君子何嘆？”孔子曰：“大道之行也，與三代之英，丘未之逮也，而有志焉。大道之行也，天下為公，選賢與能，講信修睦。故人不獨親其親，不獨子其子，使老有所終，壯有所用，幼有所長，矜寡孤獨廢疾者皆有所養，男有分，女有歸。貨惡其棄於地也，不必藏於已；力惡其不出於身也，不必為已。是故謀閉而不興，盜竊亂賊而不作，故外戶而不閉。是謂大同。今大道既隱，天下為家，各親其親，各子其子，貨力為已，大人世及以為禮，域郭溝池以為固，禮義以為紀，以正君臣，以篤父子，以睦兄弟，以和夫婦，以設制度，以立田裡，以賢勇知，以功為已。故謀用是作，而兵由此起。禹、湯、文、武、成王、周公由此其選也。此六君子者，未有不謹於禮者也。以著其義，以考其信，著有過，刑仁講讓，示民有常，如有不由此者，在埶者去，眾以為殃。是謂小康。”

Long ago, Zhongni took part in the year-end sacrifice as a guest. When the ceremony was over, he went out and strolled on the gate tower, and sighed deeply. Zhongni's sigh was probably for Lu. Yan Yan was beside him and said: "Why does the noble man sigh?" Confucius said: "When the Great Way was practiced, and the outstanding men of the Three Dynasties, I did not live to see, yet I have a mind to them. When the Great Way was practiced, the world was shared by all; they chose the worthy and capable, valued trust and cultivated harmony. So people did not love only their own parents, nor treat only their own sons as sons; the aged had a place to end their days, the able-bodied had work to do, the young had a place to grow up, and widows, widowers, orphans, the childless, the disabled and the sick were all cared for; men had their roles and women had their homes. They disliked seeing goods thrown on the ground, but did not need to hoard them for themselves; they disliked not using their strength, but did not use it only for themselves. So scheming was shut off and did not arise, and theft and banditry did not occur, so that outer doors were not closed. This is called the Great Unity. Now the Great Way has vanished and the world has become a private possession; each loves his own parents, each treats his own sons as sons, goods and strength are used for oneself, those in position make succession by inheritance a rite, city walls and moats are made as defenses, and ritual and righteousness serve as the guiding threads, to set right ruler and minister, deepen father and son, harmonize brothers, bring accord to husband and wife, establish institutions, set up farmland and villages, honor the brave and the wise, and treat achievement as one's own. So scheming arises from this, and war arises from this. Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, King Cheng and the Duke of Zhou emerged as the chosen ones of this age. These six noble men were all careful about ritual. By it they made righteousness manifest, tested trustworthiness, exposed faults, took benevolence as a model, valued yielding, and showed the people what is constant. If any did not follow this, he was removed from power, and the people regarded him as a calamity. This is called the Lesser Tranquility."

言偃復問曰：“如此乎禮之急也？”孔子曰：“夫禮，先王以承天之道，以治人之情，故失之者死，得之者生。詩曰：‘相鼠有體，人而無禮。人而無禮，胡不遄死？’是故夫禮，必本於天，殽於地，列於鬼神，達於喪祭射御、冠昏朝聘。故聖人以禮示之，故天下國家可得而正也。”

Yan Yan asked again: "Is ritual as urgent as that?" Confucius said: "Ritual is what the former kings used to receive the Way of Heaven and to govern human feelings, so those who lose it die and those who gain it live. The Book of Songs says: 'Look at the rat, it still has its limbs; a person, yet has no ritual. If a person has no ritual, why not die quickly?' So ritual must be rooted in Heaven, modeled on Earth, set out among the spirits, and extend to mourning, sacrifice, archery, charioteering, capping, marriage, court visits and diplomatic missions. Thus the sage displays it through ritual, and only then can the world, its states and its families be set right."

言偃復問曰：“夫子之極言禮也，可得而聞與？”孔子曰：“我欲觀夏道，是故之杞，而不足徵也，吾得夏時焉。我欲觀殷道，是故之宋，而不足徵也，吾得坤幹焉。坤幹之義，夏時之等，吾以是觀之。”

Yan Yan asked again: "The Master puts great effort into discussing ritual; may I hear something of it?" Confucius said: "I wished to observe the Way of Xia, so I went to Qi, but there was not enough there to confirm it; I obtained the Seasons of Xia. I wished to observe the Way of Yin, so I went to Song, but there was not enough there to confirm it; I obtained the Kun Qian. From the meaning of the Kun Qian and the arrangement of the Seasons of Xia, I make my observations."

夫禮之初，始諸飲食。其燔黍捭豚，汙尊而抔飲，蕢桴而土鼓，猶若可以致其敬於鬼神。及其死也，升屋而號，告曰：“皋某復。”然後飯腥而苴孰，故天望而地藏也。體魄則降，知氣在上，故死者北首，生者南鄉，皆從其初。

The beginning of ritual started with food and drink. They roasted millet, tore pork, dug the ground to make a vessel and drank from their cupped hands, made drumsticks of clods of earth and drums of packed earth; even so they could still send their reverence to the spirits. When someone died, they climbed up on the roof and called out, proclaiming: "Ah, so-and-so, come back." Then they put raw rice in the mouth and wrapped cooked food to send with the burial, so they looked to Heaven for the soul and buried the body in the earth. The body and breath descend while the knowing spirit goes up, so the dead lie with the head to the north and the living face south, all following the origins.

昔者先王未有宮室，冬則居營窟，夏則居橧巢。未有火化，食草木之實、鳥獸之肉，飲其血，茹其毛。未有麻絲，衣其羽皮。

In ancient times the former kings had no palaces or houses; in winter they lived in dug-out caves and in summer in nests. They had no fire to cook food, but ate the fruits of plants and trees and the flesh of birds and beasts, drinking their blood and eating fur and flesh raw. They had no hemp or silk, and wore the feathers and skins of animals.

後聖有作，然後修火之利，範金合土以為臺榭宮室牖戶，以炮，以燔，以亨，以炙，以為醴酪，治其麻絲，以為布帛，以養生送死，以事鬼神上帝，皆從其朔。

Later the sages arose, and then they made use of the convenience of fire, molded metal and fired clay, and made terraces, pavilions, palaces, houses, windows and doors, and used these to bake, roast, boil and broil, to make sweet wine and cream, and to work hemp and silk into cloth and silk fabrics, in order to nurture the living and see off the dead, and to serve spirits and God, all following the origins.

故玄酒在室，醴醆在戶，粢醍在堂，澄酒在下。陳其犧牲，備其鼎俎，列其琴瑟管磬鐘鼓，修其祝嘏，以降上神與其先祖，以正君臣，以篤父子，以睦兄弟，以齊上下，夫婦有所，是謂承天之祜。

Therefore the dark liquor is placed in the chamber, the sweet wine and cup at the door, the millet and clear wine in the hall, and the settled wine below. The victims are arranged, the tripods and trays prepared, the zithers, pipes, chimes, bells and drums set in order, and the invocations and blessings arranged, in order to bring down the upper spirits and the ancestors, to set right ruler and minister, deepen father and son, harmonize brothers, bring order to high and low, and let husband and wife each have their place. This is called receiving Heaven's blessing.

作其祝號，玄酒以祭，薦其血毛，腥其俎，孰其殽，與其越席，疏布以冪，衣其澣帛，醴醆以獻，薦其燔炙。君與夫人交獻，以嘉魂魄，是謂合莫。

The titles in the invocations are composed, the offering is made with dark liquor, blood and hair are presented, raw meat is placed on the tray, the cooked dishes are boiled, rush mats are spread, coarse cloth is used as a cover, clothes of washed silk are worn, sweet wine and cups are offered, and roast meat is presented. The ruler and his wife present offerings in turn, to please the spirits and souls. This is called uniting with the dark and vast.

然後退而合亨，體其犬豕牛羊，實其簠簋籩豆鉶羹，祝以孝告，嘏以慈告，是謂大祥。此禮之大成也。

Then they withdraw and boil together the portions, divide the dog, pig, ox and sheep, fill the baskets, bowls, bamboo and wooden vessels and the soup pots; the invocator announces with filial piety, and the one who conveys the blessing announces with kindness. This is called the great auspiciousness. This is the great accomplishment of ritual.

孔子曰：“於呼哀哉！我觀周道，幽厲傷之，吾舍魯何適矣！魯之郊禘，非禮也，周公其衰矣！杞之郊也，禹也；宋之郊也，契也。是天子之事守也。故天子祭天地，諸侯祭社稷。”

Confucius said: "Alas, how sorrowful! I have observed the Way of Zhou, and Kings You and Li damaged it; if I leave Lu, where else can I go? Lu performs the suburban and ancestral sacrifices, which is not in accord with ritual; the rites of the Duke of Zhou have declined! Qi performs the suburban sacrifice because of Yu; Song performs the suburban sacrifice because of Qi. These are duties of the Son of Heaven. Therefore the Son of Heaven sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, and the feudal lords sacrifice to the altars of soil and grain."

祝嘏莫敢易其常古，是謂大假。

The invocators and blessing-bearers do not dare to change what is constant and ancient; this is called the great blessing.

祝嘏辭說，藏於宗祝巫史，非禮也，是謂幽國。醆斝及屍君，非禮也，是謂僭君。

If the words of the invocations and blessings are kept hidden by the clan invocators, shamans and scribes, this is against ritual and is called a dark and obscure state. If the cups of the sacrifice come into the hands of a ruler who serves as impersonator, this is against ritual and is called a usurping ruler.

冕弁兵革，藏於私家，非禮也，是謂脅君。

If caps, ceremonial dress, weapons and armor are stored in private homes, this is against ritual and is called coercing the ruler.

大夫具官，祭器不假，聲樂皆具，非禮也，是謂亂國。

If a grandee has a full staff of officials, does not borrow sacrificial vessels from others, and has all kinds of music complete, this is against ritual and is called a disorderly state.

故仕於公曰臣，仕於家曰僕。三年之喪，與新有昏者，期不使。以衰裳入朝，與家僕雜居齊齒，非禮也，是謂君與臣同國。故天子有田以處其子孫，諸侯有國以處其子孫，大夫有采以處其子孫，是謂制度。故天子適諸侯，必舍其祖廟，而不以禮籍入，是謂天子壞法亂紀，諸侯非問疾弔喪，而入諸臣之家，是謂君臣為謔。

Therefore one who serves in the ducal house is called a minister, and one who serves in a grandee's house is called a retainer. For one in the three-year mourning, and for the newly married, there is no service for a year. If someone enters court wearing mourning dress, and lives mixed with house retainers on equal terms, this is against ritual and is called the ruler and minister being in one state. Therefore the Son of Heaven has land to provide for his descendants, feudal lords have states to provide for their descendants, and grandees have fiefs to provide for their descendants; this is called the system. Therefore when the Son of Heaven goes to a feudal lord's state, he must lodge in his ancestral temple, but if he enters not according to the ritual registers, this is called the Son of Heaven ruining the law and disordering the order; if a feudal lord enters a minister's house for a reason other than visiting the sick or condoling the dead, this is called ruler and minister making sport of each other.

是故禮者君之大柄也，所以別嫌明微，儐鬼神，考制度，別仁義，所以治政安君也。故政不正則君位危，君位危則大臣倍、小臣竊。刑肅而俗敝，則法無常，法無常而禮無列，無禮列則士不事也。刑肅而俗敝，則民弗歸也，是謂疵國。

So ritual is the great handle of the ruler, used to distinguish suspicion, make clear the subtle, receive the spirits, examine the institutions, distinguish benevolence and righteousness, govern affairs and stabilize the ruler. So if government is not correct, the ruler's position is in danger; if the ruler's position is in danger, the great ministers rebel and the lesser ministers steal. If punishments are severe and customs are corrupted, then law has no constancy; if law has no constancy, ritual has no order; if ritual has no order, scholars do not serve. If punishments are severe and customs are corrupted, then the people do not submit; this is called a flawed state.

故政者，君之所以藏身也。是故夫政必本於天，殽以降命。命降於社之謂殽地，降於祖廟之謂仁義，降於山川之謂興作，降於五祀之謂制度，此聖人所以藏身之固也。故聖人參於天地、並於鬼神以治政也。處其所存，禮之序也；玩其所樂，民之治也。故天生時而地生財，人其父生而師教之。四者君以正用之，故君者立於無過之地也。

So government is what the ruler uses to shelter his person. So government must be rooted in Heaven and model itself on it to issue commands. Commands that descend to the altar of the soil are called modeled on Earth; those that descend to the ancestral temple are called benevolence and righteousness; those that descend to the mountains and rivers are called undertakings; those that descend to the five domestic sacrifices are called institutions. This is the solid shelter the sage uses for his person. So the sage governs by taking Heaven and Earth as reference and setting the spirits alongside. What he dwells in is the order of ritual; what he savors with joy is the good governance of the people. So Heaven produces the seasons and Earth produces wealth; people are born of their fathers and taught by their teachers. The ruler uses these four correctly, and so he stands in a position without fault.

故君者所明也，非明人者也；君者所養也，非養人者也；君者所事也，非事人者也。故君明人則有過，養人則不足，事人則失位。故百姓則君以自治也，養君以自安也，事君以自顯也。故禮達而分定，故人皆愛其死而患其生。

So the ruler is one who is taken as a model by others, not one who takes others as a model; the ruler is one who is nourished by others, not one who nourishes others; the ruler is one who is served by others, not one who serves others. So if the ruler takes others as his model, he makes mistakes; if he nourishes others, he falls short; if he serves others, he loses his position. So the people take the ruler as a model to govern themselves, nourish the ruler to be at peace, and serve the ruler to be distinguished. So when ritual is understood throughout and names and roles are fixed, people all cherish dying well and are anxious about a life that is unrighteous.

故用人之知去其詐，用人之勇去其怒，用人之仁去其貪。

So by using people's wisdom one removes their deceit, by using their courage one removes their anger, and by using their benevolence one removes their greed.

故國有患，君死社稷，謂之義，大夫死宗廟，謂之變。

So when the state has troubles, for the ruler to die for the altars of soil and grain is called righteousness, and for a grandee to die for the ancestral temple is called an exception.

故聖人耐以天下為一家，以中國為一人者，非意之也，必知其情，闢於其義，明於其利，達於其患，然後能為之。

So the sage can regard the world as one family and the central states as one person, not out of speculation, but because he must know human feelings, understand righteousness, grasp what is beneficial and see through what is harmful, and only then can he do it.

何謂人情？喜、怒、哀、懼、愛、惡、欲，七者弗學而能。何謂人義？父慈、子孝、兄良、弟弟、夫義、婦聽、長惠、幼順、君仁、臣忠，十者謂之人義。講信修睦，謂之人利，爭奪相殺，謂之人患。故聖人之所以治人七情，修十義，講信修睦，尚辭讓，去爭奪，舍禮何以治之？飲食男女，人之大欲存焉；死亡貧苦，人之大惡存焉。故欲惡者，心之大端也。人藏其心，不可測度也。美惡皆在其心，不見其色也，欲一以窮之，舍禮何以哉？

What are called human feelings? Joy, anger, sorrow, fear, love, hatred and desire: these seven are capable without learning. What are called human duties? The father's kindness and the son's filial piety, the elder brother's goodness and the younger brother's respect, the husband's righteousness and the wife's compliance, the elder's generosity and the young's obedience, the ruler's benevolence and the minister's loyalty: these ten are called human duties. To value trust and cultivate harmony is called human benefit; to fight, seize and kill each other is called human harm. So the sage uses these to govern the seven human feelings, cultivate the ten duties, value trust and cultivate harmony, honor courtesy and yielding, and remove strife and seizure; setting ritual aside, what could be used to govern? Food, drink and the relation of man and woman are where people's great desires lie; death, loss and poverty are where people's great aversions lie. So desire and aversion are the great beginnings of the heart. A person hides his heart, and it cannot be fathomed. Beauty and ugliness are both within the heart and do not show on the face; if one wished to exhaust it by a single method, what else could one use but ritual?

故人者，其天地之德、陰陽之交、鬼神之會、五行之秀氣也。

So man is the virtue of Heaven and Earth, the meeting of yin and yang, the gathering of the spirits, and the finest breath of the five phases.

故天秉陽，垂日星，地秉陰，竅于山川，播五行於四時，和而後月生也。是以三五而盈，三五而闕，五行之動，迭相竭也。五行、四時、十二月，還相為本也。五聲、六律、十二管，還相為宮也。五味、六和、十二食，還相為質也。五色、六章、十二衣，還相為質也。

So Heaven holds yang and hangs down the sun and stars; Earth holds yin and its openings are in the mountains and rivers. The five phases are spread through the four seasons, and when they are in harmony the moon is born. So it is full at fifteen and wanes at fifteen. The five phases move, taking turns in exhausting each other. The five phases, four seasons and twelve months circle around, each in turn being the root. The five notes, six pitches and twelve pipes circle around, each in turn being the tonic. The five flavors, six harmonies and twelve foods circle around, each in turn being the substance. The five colors, six emblems and twelve garments circle around, each in turn being the substance.

故人者，天地之心也，五行之端也。食味、別聲、被色而生者也。故聖人作則，必以天地為本，以陰陽為端，以四時為柄，以日星為紀，月以為量，鬼神以為徒，五行以為質，禮義以為器，人情以為田，四靈以為畜。以天地為本，故物可舉也。以陰陽為端，故情可睹也。以四時為柄，故事可勸也。以日星為紀，故事可列也。月以為量，故功有藝也。鬼神以為徒，故事有守也。五行以為質，故事可復也。禮義以為器，故事行有考也。人情以為田，故人以為奧也。四靈以為畜，故飲食有由也。何謂四靈？麟鳳龜龍謂之四靈。故龍以為畜，故魚鮪不淰。鳳以為畜，故鳥不獝。麟以為畜，故獸不狘。龜以為畜，故人情不失。

So man is the heart of Heaven and Earth, the beginning of the five phases, and lives by tasting flavors, discriminating sounds and wearing colors. So when the sage establishes standards, he must take Heaven and Earth as the root, yin and yang as the beginning, the four seasons as the handle, the sun and stars as the record, the moon as the measure, the spirits as his followers, the five phases as the substance, ritual and righteousness as the tools, human feelings as the field, and the four numinous creatures as his livestock. Taking Heaven and Earth as the root, things can be brought forth. Taking yin and yang as the beginning, feelings can be seen. Taking the four seasons as the handle, affairs can be encouraged. Taking the sun and stars as the record, affairs can be arranged in order. Taking the moon as the measure, work has its limit. Taking the spirits as followers, affairs have their charges. Taking the five phases as the substance, affairs can cycle. Taking ritual and righteousness as the tools, the carrying out of affairs has proof. Taking human feelings as the field, people become the masters. Taking the four numinous creatures as livestock, food and drink have their source. What are the four numinous creatures? The qilin, phoenix, tortoise and dragon are called the four numinous creatures. So when the dragon is kept as livestock, fish are not startled and scattered; when the phoenix is kept, birds do not take fright and fly off; when the qilin is kept, beasts do not take fright and run; when the tortoise is kept, human feelings are not lost.

故先王秉蓍龜，列祭祀，瘞繒，宣祝嘏辭說，設制度，故國有禮，官有御，事有職，禮有序。

So the former kings held the milfoil and the tortoise shell, set out the sacrifices, buried silk offerings, proclaimed the words of invocation and blessing, and established institutions, so that the state had ritual, the officials had their duties, affairs had their charges, and ritual had its order.

故先王患禮之不達於下也。

So the former kings were anxious that ritual might not reach down to the lower levels.