Fourteenth Section: Miscellaneous Combinations · Second Section: Matching with Sounds

子產曰：章為五聲。蔡伯喈云：通於耳者為聲。青作角聲，白作商聲，黑作羽聲，赤作徵聲，黃作宮聲。《律曆志》云：角者，觸也，陽氣蠢動，萬物觸地而生也；徵者，祉也，萬物大盛蕃祉也；宮者，中也，居中央，暢四方，唱始施生，為四聲之經；商者，章也，物成章明也；羽者，宇也，物藏聚萃，宇覆之也。

Zheng State's Minister Zi Chang said that the five phases' energies manifest externally as the "five sounds," which are the five musical scales: Gong, Shang, Jue, Zhi, and Yu. Cai Yong of the Eastern Han dynasty (with the courtesy name Boye) explained that sounds which reach the ears and can be heard are called "sound." The five sounds correspond one by one with the five colors: green corresponds to Jue sound, white to Shang sound, black to Yu sound, red to Zhi sound, and yellow to Gong sound. The "Book of Han: Records of the Rites and Calendars" explains the origin of these five terms through homophonic explanation: "Jue" means "to touch," as in spring when yang energy begins to rise, and all things push through the ground, hence called Jue; "Zhi" means "blessing," referring to the flourishing of all things in summer, hence called Zhi; "Gong" means "center," as it resides in the center and communicates with all directions, initiating the tone and giving rise to life, thus serving as the framework for the other four sounds; "Shang" means "manifestation," as in autumn when all things mature and their patterns become clear, hence called Shang; "Yu" means "roof," as in winter when all things are gathered and stored, like a roof covering them, hence called Yu.

《樂緯》云：春氣和，則角聲調；夏氣和，則徵聲調；季夏氣和，則宮聲調；秋氣和，則商聲調；冬氣和，則羽聲調。《樂記》曰：宮為君，故宮亂則荒，其君驕；商為臣，商亂則陂，其臣壞；徵為事，徵亂則哀，其事勤；羽為物，羽亂則危，其財匱；角為民，角亂則憂，其民怨。五者不亂，則天下和平，無弊敗之音。《素問》云：木音角，在聲為呼；火音徵，在聲為笑；土音宮，在聲為歌；金音商，在聲為哭；水音羽，在聲為呻。

The "Yue Wei" section of the apocryphal text "Wei Shu" associates the five tones with the four seasons, using pitch accuracy to verify the solar terms: in spring, when the wood energy is harmonious, the jue tone is accurate; in summer, when the fire energy is harmonious, the zhi tone is accurate; in the sixth month of late summer, when the earth energy is harmonious, the gong tone is accurate; in autumn, when the metal energy is harmonious, the shang tone is accurate; in winter, when the water energy is harmonious, the yu tone is accurate. The "Li Ji · Yue Ji" associates the five tones with human affairs, using disordered musical tones to predict political conditions: gong represents the sovereign, and if the gong tone is disordered, the music becomes chaotic, indicating the sovereign's arrogance; shang represents ministers, and if the shang tone is disordered, the music becomes uneven, indicating the ministers' corruption; zhi represents government affairs, and if the zhi tone is disordered, the music becomes sorrowful, indicating heavy labor and hardship; yu represents wealth, and if the yu tone is disordered, the music becomes urgent, indicating empty treasuries; jue represents the common people, and if the jue tone is disordered, the music becomes melancholic, indicating public grievances. If none of the five tones are disordered, the world is naturally peaceful, and there will be no sound of disorder. The "Su Wen" section of the "Huang Di Nei Jing" associates the five tones with the forms of human speech: the tone of wood is jue, which is heard in human speech as shouting; the tone of fire is zhi, which is heard in human speech as laughter; the tone of earth is gong, which is heard in human speech as singing; the tone of metal is shang, which is heard in human speech as crying; the tone of water is yu, which is heard in human speech as moaning.

《樂記》曰：樂者，音之所由生，其本在人心之感於物。是故哀心感者，其聲噍以殺；樂心感者，其聲嘽以緩；喜心感者，其聲發以散；怒心感者，其聲粗以厲；貞心感者，其聲直以廉；愛心感者，其聲和以婉。六者非性也，感於物而後動。審聲以知音，審音以知樂，審樂以知政，而治道備矣。故《詩序》曰：聲成文謂之音。治世之音安以樂，其政和；亂世之音怨以怒，其政乖；亡國之音哀以思，其民困。

The Li Ji · Yue Ji says: music arises from sound, and sound originates from the human heart being moved by external things. Therefore, when the heart is moved by sorrow, the sound is urgent and weak; when moved by joy, the sound is broad and smooth; when moved by delight, the sound is lofty and spreading; when moved by anger, the sound is coarse and severe; when moved by upright intentions, the sound is straight and sharp; when moved by affection, the sound is gentle and winding. These six kinds of sounds are not inherent in human nature, but arise when the heart is moved by external things. Therefore, distinguishing the clarity and dullness, the high and low of sound enables one to understand music; distinguishing the combination of music enables one to understand the art of music; distinguishing the atmosphere of music enables one to understand politics, thus completing the way of governing the state. Therefore, the Mao Shi Xu says: sound arranged in a certain order to form elegance is called music. The music of a peaceful era is calm and joyful, because its politics are harmonious; the music of a chaotic era is resentful and angry, because its politics are corrupt; the music of a fallen state is sorrowful and full of longing, because its people are suffering.

《大戴禮·觀人篇》云：誠在其中，必見諸外，以其見占其隱，以其細占其大，聲象其實。氣初生物，物生有聲，聲有剛柔清濁，好惡咸發於聲。故心氣譁誕者，其聲流散；心氣順信者，其聲順節；心氣鄙戾者，其聲腥丑；心氣寬柔者，其聲溫和。故聖人聽其聲，觀其色，知其善惡。夫獨發者謂之聲，合和者謂之音。《毛詩序》云：聲成文謂之音。故因五聲而有八音。

The "Observing People" section of the "Da Dai Li Ji" (now known as "Wen Wang Guan Ren") says: What is real in the heart will certainly manifest externally, so one can infer the hidden from the manifest, and the minor from the major. Sound is the true reflection of the inner state. Qi first gives birth to all things, and once things are born, they have sound. Sound has hardness and softness, clarity and dullness, and people's likes and dislikes are all revealed through sound. Therefore, those with a boastful and false heart have scattered and uncontrolled voices; those with a harmonious and sincere heart have voices in tune with propriety; those with a crude and fierce heart have harsh and unpleasant voices; those with a kind and gentle heart have warm and harmonious voices. Thus, the sage can discern whether a person is good or evil by listening to his voice and observing his facial expressions. A single sound is called "sheng," while coordinated sounds are called "yin." The "Mao Shi Xu" says, "Sound becomes music when it is orderly and forms a pattern," which is exactly this meaning. It is precisely because there are the five tones of Gong, Shang, Jue, Zhi, and Yu that the "eight sounds" can be further developed.

《樂緯》云：物以三成，以五立，三與五如八，故音以八。八音：金、石、絲、竹、土、木、匏、革，以發宮、商、角、徵、羽也。金為鍾，石為磬，絲為弦，竹為管，土為壎，木為柷圄，匏為笙，革為鼓。鼓主震，笙主巽，柷圄主干，壎主艮，管主坎，弦主離，磬主坤，鍾主兌。

The *Yue Wei* explains the origin of the "eight sounds" (八音): all things are formed by the number "three," such as the three principles of heaven, earth, and humanity; they are established by the number "five," such as the Five Phases. Adding three and five gives eight, so the categories of musical instruments are fixed as eight. The eight sounds refer to eight types of materials used to make instruments, from which the five tones (宫, 商, 角, 徵, 羽) are produced. Specifically: metal is used for bells, stone for磬, silk for stringed instruments like zithers, bamboo for flutes and箫, earth for the clay xun flute, wood for the zhù and yǔ (here written as zhù yǔ), gourd for the sheng, and leather for drums. Each of the eight sounds is also associated with one trigram: drums correspond to Zhen (Thunder), sheng to Xun (Wind), zhù and yǔ to Qian (Heaven), xun flute to Gen (Mountain), flute to Kan (Water), stringed instruments to Li (Fire),磬 to Kun (Earth), and bells to Dui (Lake). This connects musical instruments, directions, and the eight seasonal divisions into a unified system.

《樂緯·汁圖徵篇》云：坎主冬至，宮者，君之象，人有君然後萬物成，氣有黃鍾之宮然後萬物調，所以始正天下也。能與天地同儀、神明合德者，則七始八終，各得其宜，而天子穆穆，四方取始，故樂用管。艮主立春，陽氣始出，言雷動百里，聖人授民田亦不過百畝，此天地之分。黃鍾之度九，而調八音，故聖人以九頃成八家。上農夫食九口，中者七口，下者五口，是為富者不足以奢，貧者無飢餒之憂，三年餘一年之蓄，九年餘三年之蓄，此黃鍾之所成，以消息之和，故樂用壎。

The "Ju Tu Zheng" section of the "Yue Wei" discusses the eight trigrams and their association with eight solar terms, explaining the musical instruments used for each season and the principles of governance they represent. The Kan trigram governs the winter solstice: the palace tone symbolizes the ruler, and with the ruler, all things are completed. Similarly, in the system of musical scales, the "Huangzhong" palace tone serves as the standard, allowing all other tones to be properly tuned. Therefore, the Huangzhong palace tone is the starting point for governing the country. If the ruler can align with the laws of heaven and earth and the virtues of the divine, then the entire system of music, which begins with seven tones and ends with eight winds, will be in harmony. The Son of Heaven will appear dignified and solemn, and all directions will take him as their standard. The music for the winter solstice is played on bamboo flutes. The Gen trigram governs the beginning of spring: the yang energy is just emerging, thunder can move a hundred li, and the land granted to the people by the sage is no more than a hundred mu, reflecting the limits set by heaven and earth. The Huangzhong pitch is nine inches long, using nine as the standard to harmonize the eight tones. Therefore, the sage divides nine hundred mu of land among eight families, each receiving a hundred mu, with an additional hundred mu as public land. The harvest of the most capable farmer can support nine people, the average farmer can support seven, and the least capable can support five. This ensures the rich do not become extravagant and the poor do not suffer from hunger. After three years of farming, there will be a year's surplus, and after nine years, three years' surplus. All of this is achieved through the numbers of Huangzhong, used to harmonize the waxing and waning of yin and yang. Therefore, the music for the beginning of spring is played on the clay xun flute.

震主春分，天地陰陽分均，故聖王法承天以立五均。五均者，六律調五聲之均也。音至眾也，聲不過五；物至蕃也，均不過五。為富者慮貧，強者不侵弱，智者不詐愚，市無二價，萬物同均，四時當得，公家有餘，恩及天下，與天地同徳，故樂用鼓。巽主立夏，自萬物長短各有差，故聖王法承天以法授事焉，尊卑各有等，於士則義讓有禮，君臣有差，上下皆次，治道行，故樂用笙。

The trigram Zhen (Thunder) governs the spring equinox: on this day, day and night are equal, yin and yang are balanced, so the sage kings model themselves after Heaven, establishing the system of "five levels" ("wujun"). "Jun" originally refers to the standard instrument used for tuning musical scales, and "five levels" refers to the system of using the six tones to regulate the five musical notes. In politics, this concept is extended to mean the government's regulation of prices, equalizing wealth and poverty. The variations of sound are countless, yet they all originate from the five musical notes; the diversity of things is infinite, yet they all conform to the five levels. Thus, the rich consider the needs of the poor, the strong do not oppress the weak, the wise do not deceive the foolish, and the same goods have the same price in the market. All things receive their proper balance, the four seasons their proper suitability, the state has surplus wealth, and the benevolent influence extends throughout the world. This corresponds to the virtue of Heaven and Earth. The music of the spring equinox is played with drums. The trigram Xun (Wind) governs the beginning of summer: at this time, all things have reached a stage where their height, length, and differences are clearly defined. Therefore, the sage kings model themselves after Heaven, assigning positions according to ability, establishing distinctions of rank and hierarchy. Scholars observe propriety and courtesy, the relationship between ruler and minister is clear, and the order between superiors and inferiors is established. Thus, the way of governing the state is carried out. The music of the beginning of summer is played with the bamboo flute.

離主夏至，陽始下陰，又成物，故聖王法承天以法授衣服制度，所以明禮義，顯貴賤，明燭其徳，率之以度，則女功有差，男行有禮，故樂用弦。坤主立秋，陽氣方入，陰氣用事，昆蟲首穴欲蟄，故聖王法之，授宮室度量，又章制有宜，大小有法，貴賤有差，上下有順，故樂用磬。

The Trigram Li governs the summer solstice: on this day, the yang energy reaches its peak and begins to decline, meeting the emerging yin energy to form all things. Therefore, the sage kings model themselves after Heaven, establishing clothing regulations to demonstrate propriety and distinguish rank, making human virtue as clear as a candle's light and regulated by measure. Thus, women's weaving work has distinctions, and men's behavior follows proper etiquette. The music of the summer solstice uses stringed instruments like the qin and se. The Trigram Kun governs the beginning of autumn: yang energy starts to retreat inward, and yin energy prevails. Insects turn their heads toward their burrows in preparation for hibernation. Therefore, the sage kings take inspiration from this returning and concealing phenomenon, establishing standards for palace structures and measurements, so that regulations are appropriate, house sizes are regulated, distinctions of rank are clear, and hierarchy is maintained. The music of the beginning of autumn uses stone chimes.

兌主秋分，天地萬物人功皆以定，故聖王法承天以定爵祿。爵祿者不過其能。宮為君，商為臣。商，章也，言臣章明君之功徳。尊卑有位，位有物，物有宜，功成者爵賞，功敗者刑罰，故樂用鍾。干主立冬，陰陽終而復始，萬物死而復甦，故聖王法承天以制刑法，誅一動千，殺一感萬，使死者不恨，生者不怨，故樂用柷梧。

The Trigram Dui governs the Autumn Equinox: at this time, all things in the universe and human achievements have reached their final state, so the sage kings model themselves after Heaven to determine ranks and salaries, granting titles without exceeding a person's ability. "Gong" refers to the ruler, and "Shang" refers to the minister; "Shang" is also "Zhang," meaning ministers should clearly display the virtues of the ruler. Thus, there is proper hierarchy, with each position having appropriate symbols, and each symbol being suitable. Successful achievements are rewarded, and failures are punished according to law. The music for the Autumn Equinox is played on the bell. The Trigram Qian governs the Beginning of Winter: yin and yang complete a cycle and begin anew, with all things appearing to die but able to revive. Therefore, the sage kings model themselves after Heaven to establish laws and punishments, ensuring that the execution of one person can warn a thousand, and the death of one person can shake ten thousand. Those executed do not hold a grudge, and those who survive do not complain. The music for the Beginning of Winter is played on the zhu and yu (written as "zhu wu" in the text, which are two wooden instruments used to start and stop music).

《國語》曰：瓦絲琴瑟尚宮，鍾金尚羽，石尚角，匏竹尚徵，革木尚商。呂以和樂，律以平聲，金石以動之，絲竹以行之，歌以詠之，匏以宣之，瓦以贊之，革木以節之。物得其常曰樂，所奪曰擊，相保曰和，細大不踰曰平。瓦絲皆大也，故尚宮，子母相應之道；鍾金尚羽，亦然；石尚角者，石，金也，與角為牝杜相和之義；匏，土也，竹，木也，尚徵，亦子母相應也；革木俱角，尚商，亦以牝杜相和也。

The Guoyu · Zhou Yu records that King Jing of Zhou asked the music official Ling Zhoujiu about the tones favored by different musical instruments. The clay xun and the qin and se (stringed instruments) favor the Gong tone, metal instruments like bells favor the Yu tone, stone chimes favor the Jue tone, the sheng and bamboo flutes favor the Zheng tone, and drums and zhu and yu favor the Shang tone. The six Lü (pitch pipes) are used to harmonize the melody, while the six Lu (pitch pipes) are used to regulate the pitch level. Metal and stone instruments initiate the music, silk and bamboo instruments follow and carry it forward, human voices sing in a melodic way, the gourd sheng is used to express freely, clay vessels are used to assist, and leather and wood are used to keep the rhythm. When all things maintain their natural state, it is called "music." When they are disturbed and lose order, it is called "striking." When they support each other, it is called "harmony." When the soft and loud tones do not exceed their proper limits, it is called "balance." Xiao Ji then explains the Five Phases reasoning behind these pairings: clay and silk produce loud sounds, so they favor the Gong tone, which is based on the principle of mother and child correspondence. The metal bells also favor the Yu tone for the same reason. Stone chimes favor the Jue tone because stone belongs to metal, and metal and the wood associated with Jue form a complementary and balanced relationship of yin and yang. Gourd belongs to earth, bamboo belongs to wood, yet they favor the fire Zheng tone, which is also based on the principle of mother and child correspondence. Leather and wood both belong to the Jue wood, yet they favor the metal Shang tone, which is also based on the principle of yin and yang harmony.

宮聲和以舒，其和博以柔，動脾；商聲散以明，其和溫以虛，動肺；角聲防以約，其和靜以清，動肝；徵聲敗以疾，其和平以均，動心；羽聲疾以虛，其和短以散，動腎。《黃帝兵決》云：兩敵相當，使人去敵營一百二十步，以管注耳聽之。聞隆隆如車、如雷、如鼓聲者，宮也，其將寬和有信。

The five tones each have their own sound qualities and correspond to a particular organ: the Gong tone is calm and expansive, with a broad and gentle harmony, affecting the spleen; the Shang tone is dispersing and bright, with a warm and hollow harmony, affecting the lung; the Jue tone is restrained and measured, with a quiet and clear harmony, affecting the liver; the Zheng tone is urgent and rapid, with a level and even harmony, affecting the heart; the Yu tone is swift and elusive, with a short and scattered harmony, affecting the kidney. The "Yellow Emperor's Military Strategy" applies this method of listening to sounds in military contexts: when two armies face each other, someone is sent to a place 120 paces away from the enemy camp, using a bamboo tube to listen to the ground sounds. If a deep, rolling sound is heard, like chariots moving, thunder, or drumming, it is the Gong tone, indicating that the enemy commander is broad-minded, calm, and trustworthy.

聞金石相和，轟轟擊攻，如鍾磬霹靂聲者，商也，其將威怒好殺，宜數忿之。聞如奔馬炎炮掣裂聲者，征也，其將猛烈勇敢，難與爭鋒。聞肅肅習習，如動樹木，如人呼愁愁聲者，角也，其將仁恕不可欺。聞滔滔如流水揚波，激氣相笑聲者，羽也，其將貪冒多姧謀。審此五音，以知敵性。候風之聲，亦皆如之。此並論音聲之狀，故以備釋。

If one hears the sound of metal and stone colliding, a loud and crashing noise, like bells and chimes ringing together or thunder cracking, it is the Shang tone, indicating the enemy's general is fierce and easily angered, inclined to kill. It is advisable to provoke him repeatedly to make him lose his composure. If one hears a sound like a galloping horse or a fierce fire exploding and tearing apart, it is the Zheng tone, indicating the enemy's general is fierce and brave, and one should not engage him directly. If one hears a sound that is calm and gentle, like the wind moving through trees or a person sighing in sorrow, it is the Jue tone, indicating the enemy's general is benevolent and forgiving, and one should not use deceit against him. If one hears a sound like flowing water with waves or a breathy sound like mutual laughter, it is the Yu tone, indicating the enemy's general is greedy, ambitious, and cunning. By examining these five kinds of sounds, one can discern the nature of the enemy's general. Using the same method to listen to the wind, the reasoning is similar. All of this discusses various forms of sound, so it is explained in detail here.

子產云：氣為五味。鄭玄云：通口者為五味，通鼻者為五臭。《禮記·月令》云：春之日，其味酸，其臭羶，木之臭味也。《說文》云：羶者，羊臭。春物氣與羊相類。木所以酸者，象東方萬物之生。酸者，鑽也，言萬物鑽地而出生，五味得酸乃達也。《元命苞》云：酸之言端也，氣始生，專心自端也。

Zi Chen said that the five phases' energies falling upon the mouth and tongue become the five flavors, namely sour, bitter, sweet, pungent, and salty. In the Eastern Han dynasty, Zheng Xuan further distinguished that the five flavors reach the mouth, while the five odors reach the nose, namely膻, burnt, fragrant, fishy, and rotten. The Book of Rites, Monthly Orders says that in spring the flavor is sour and the odor is膻, which is the odor of wood. The Shuo Wen Jie Zi explains that "膻" refers to the smell of sheep, because the qi of spring and the qi of sheep are similar (sheep belongs to fire in the five phases, but its qi is close to wood, hence spring corresponds to膻). Wood corresponds to sour because it takes the image of the east where all things first sprout: "sour" and "drill" are homophones and synonymous, meaning that all things drill through the soil to grow, and among the five flavors, sour is needed to make the flavors flow. The apocryphal text Chūn Qiū Yuán Mìng Bāo says that "sour" is "end," because when the qi begins to arise, one focuses entirely and remains upright, hence it is called sour.

《禮記》云：夏之日，其味苦，其臭焦。火所以苦者，南方主長養也。苦者，所以長養之，五味須苦乃以養之。《元命苞》云：苦者，勤苦乃能養也。《方言》：苦，快也。臭焦者，陽氣蒸動，燎火之氣也。許慎云：焦者，火燒物有焦燃之氣，夏氣同也。《禮記》云：季夏之日，其味甘，其臭香。土味所以甘者，中央中和也，甘美也。《元命苞》云：甘者，食常言安其味也。甘味為五味之主，猶土之和成於四行也。臭香者，土之氣香為主也。許慎云：土得其中和之氣，故香也。

The Li Ji · Yue Ling says that the taste of summer is bitter and the qi is scorched. Fire is paired with bitterness because the south governs growth and nurturing, and "bitter" signifies diligent nurturing; among the five flavors, bitterness is essential to achieve the function of nourishment. The Chūnqiū Yuànmìng Bāo says: "Bitterness means one must be willing to endure hardship to be nurtured." Yang Xiong's Fangyan also records that in some dialects, "bitter" is interpreted as "fast" (meaning ease and comfort), showing that the meaning of this character is not singular. The qi is paired with scorched because yang qi rises and moves vigorously, just like the breath of fierce fire. Xu Shen explains: "Scorched" refers to the smoky smell when something is burned, and the qi of summer is similar to it. The Li Ji · Yue Ling also says that in the last month of summer (June, the month of earth), the taste is sweet and the qi is fragrant. The reason earth taste is paired with sweetness is that it resides in the center and has a moderate nature, while sweetness represents sweetness and harmony; the Chūnqiū Yuànmìng Bāo says "sweetness" refers to the taste in daily food that makes people feel at ease. Sweetness is the main flavor among the five, just as earth, which resides in the center and harmonizes, gives rise to the other four elements. The qi is paired with fragrance because the earth's qi is primarily fragrant; Xu Shen says that earth receives the harmonious qi, thus emitting fragrance.

《禮記》云：秋之日，其臭腥，其味辛。西方殺氣腥也。許慎云：未熟之氣腥也，西方金之氣象此。味辛者，物得辛乃萎殺也。亦云：故新之辛也，故物皆盡，新物已成，故云新。《元命苞》云：陰害故辛，殺義故辛刺，陰氣使其然也。《禮記》云：冬之日，其味醎，其臭朽。朽者，水之氣也，若有若無，言氣微也。亦云：水者受垢濁，故其臭腐朽也。許慎云：朽爛之氣，北方氣同此。其味醎者，北方物醎，所以堅之也，猶五味得醎乃堅也。許慎云：醎者，銜也。《元命苞》云：醎者，鎌。鎌，清也。至寒之氣，故使其清而醎。

The Li Ji · Yue Ling says: the taste of autumn is pungent, and the smell is putrid. The sharp and severe air of the west produces the putrid smell; Xu Shen says that putrid is the smell of food before it is ripe, and the metal energy of the west is exactly like this. The taste is pungent because all things wither and decay when they encounter the pungent flavor. Another interpretation reads 'xīn' (new) instead of 'xīn' (pungent): old things are all exhausted in autumn, and new things follow and mature, hence called 'new'. The Chūnqiū Yuànmìng Bāo says: the beginning of yin energy harms things, hence the pungent taste; the pungent flavor has the meaning of severity and decay, hence it stings the mouth, which is caused by yin energy. The Li Ji · Yue Ling also says: the taste of winter is salty, and the smell is decayed. 'Decayed' is the smell of water, faint and indistinct, describing its subtle nature; some say water carries dirt and filth, hence the decayed smell. Xu Shen says decayed is the smell of decay, and the northern energy is similar to this. The taste is salty because northern things have a salty taste, and salt can make things firm, just as the five flavors require salt to solidify their form. Xu Shen also explains by homophony: 'salty' is 'xian' (to contain or hold), meaning to contain and close. The Chūnqiū Yuànmìng Bāo says 'salty' is 'jian' (a sickle), meaning cold and clear; extreme cold makes water clear and sharp, hence the salty taste.

鄭玄云：五味酰酸，酒苦，蜜甘，姜辛，鹽醎。《黃帝甲乙經》言：谷則米甘，麻酸，大豆醎，麥苦，黍辛，一雲稻米辛；菓則棗甘，李酸，栗醎，杏苦，桃辛；菜則葵甘，韮酸，藿醎，薤苦，蔥辛；畜則牛甘，犬酸，彘醎，羊苦，雞辛。《本草》云：石則玉甘，金辛，雄黃苦，會青酸，赤石脂醎；草則茯苓甘，桂心辛，天門冬苦，五味子酸，玄參醎；蟲則蜚零甘，蚿辛，蛇蚺苦，伊威酸，蜥蜴醎。藥食之物例多，且舉大略配五味如此，皆是五行氣所生，氣有偏，故其味則別。

Zheng Xuan used common condiments as examples: vinegar is sour, wine is bitter, honey is sweet, ginger is pungent, and salt is salty. The "Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine" (i.e., "Classic of Acupuncture and Moxibustion of the Yellow Emperor" by Huangfu Mi) listed them by categories: among grains, millet is sweet, flax is sour, soybeans are salty, wheat is bitter, and millet is pungent; among fruits, jujubes are sweet, plums are sour, chestnuts are salty, apricots are bitter, and peaches are pungent; among vegetables, Chinese kale is sweet, leeks are sour, bean leaves are salty, chives are bitter, and garlic is pungent; among domesticated animals, cattle are sweet, dogs are sour, pigs are salty, sheep are bitter, and chickens are pungent. The "Shennong Bencao Jing" further classified them into three categories as medicinal substances: minerals, jade is sweet, metal is pungent, cinnabar is bitter, and cinnabar green (written as "hui qing" in the text) is sour, and red clay is salty; herbs,茯苓 is sweet, cassia heartwood is pungent, Chinese yam is bitter, five-flavor fruit is sour, and polygonatum is salty; insects, the insect called "fei ling" is sweet, the insect called "ma lu" is pungent, the python is bitter, the insect called "yi wei" (a kind of damp insect) is sour, and the lizard is salty. There are too many edible and medicinal substances, so only the main ones are mentioned here to match the five flavors. All of these are produced by the five phases' energies. A substance inherits a particular energy, and its flavor follows accordingly.

總而言之，五穀則芒以配木，散以配火，房以配金，莢以配水，萃以配土。芒，大小麥之屬；散，糜黍之屬；房，胡麻之屬；莢，大小豆之屬；萃，稷粟之屬。芒者，取其鋒芒纖長，象木生出地，如鋒芒也。散，舒也，象火氣溫暖，物舒散也。房，方也，象金裁割，體方正也。莢，狹也，象水流長而狹也。萃，聚也，象萬物皆聚於土，乃為用也。

In summary, the five grains can be associated with the Five Phases according to the shape of their fruits: those with芒 are associated with wood, those that are loose are associated with fire, those that form a housing structure are associated with metal, those that form pods are associated with water, and those that form clusters are associated with earth. Those with芒 refer to grains like barley and wheat, those that are loose refer to millet and proso millet, those that form a housing structure refer to sesame, those that form pods refer to soybeans and small beans, and those that form clusters refer to millet and sorghum. The reasoning behind these associations is as follows: 「芒」 refers to its sharp and long spikes, resembling the sharp points of grass and trees breaking through the soil, hence associated with wood; 「散」 means spreading out, resembling the warmth of fire causing things to spread out, hence associated with fire; 「房」 means square, resembling the ability of metal to cut and shape, and its square form, hence associated with metal; 「荚」 means narrow, resembling the narrow and flowing nature of water, hence associated with water; 「萃」 means gathering, resembling the gathering of all things into earth to be used by humans, hence associated with earth.

五菓則子以配木，核以配火，皮以配金，殼以配水，房以配土。子，棃之屬；核，桃李之屬；皮，柑橘之屬；殼，胡桃栗之屬；房，蒲陶之屬。子取其含潤，如木生光潤，子實茂盛。核取其在肉內不堪食，如火陰在內，無所堪容。皮取其厚急，如金氣衰老，物至西方而急縮也。殼取其肉在內堪食，如水陽在內，堪能容納也。房取其結聚如土，物皆聚也。此則總論谷菓，以配五味，則略如前釋。

The five fruits are also classified according to their structure into the five phases: those with many seeds are assigned to wood, those with kernels are assigned to fire, those with thick rinds are assigned to metal, those with shells are assigned to water, and those that grow in clusters are assigned to earth. Fruits with many seeds, such as pear (the second character of the fruit's name in the original text is a rare variant not recorded in dictionaries), have juice and many seeds, resembling the moist and flourishing growth of grass and trees, hence assigned to wood. Fruits with kernels, such as peach and plum, have kernels enclosed within the flesh, which cannot be eaten, resembling the image of fire, which has an outer yang and inner yin, and is hollow inside, hence assigned to fire. Citrus fruits have thick and tight rinds, resembling the declining phase of metal, when all things reach the west and contract rapidly, hence assigned to metal. Peanuts and chestnuts have shells on the outside and edible flesh inside, resembling the image of water, which has an outer yin and inner yang, and can contain things inside, hence assigned to water. Grapes grow in clusters, resembling the gathering of all things in earth, hence assigned to earth. The above is a general discussion of how grains and fruits are assigned to the five tastes, roughly as explained before.

《月令》云：春食麥與羊，麥有孚甲，故屬木；羊火畜，春氣猶寒，以此安性。夏食菽與雞，菽有孚甲而堅，合於水；雞屬木畜，故為熱時所食。中央食稷與牛，稷是谷之長，牛是土畜，以其甘和，故象於時。秋食麻與犬，麻屬金，犬亦金畜，故從秋也。冬食黍與豕，黍舒散屬火，豕水畜，兼其水火，以為冬食。

The Li Ji · Yue Ling specifies the main grains and meats for each season, and Zheng Xuan explains the reasons for each. In spring, people eat wheat and mutton: wheat grains have a hard shell (fu jia) that cracks open, so it belongs to wood; sheep are animals with fire properties, and in spring, when the remaining cold has not yet disappeared, eating fire-property mutton can help calm the body and mind. In summer, people eat beans and chicken: beans also have a hard pod and are firm, matching the firmness and restraint of water; chickens are animals with wood properties, so they are eaten during the hot season. In late summer, when earth is dominant, people eat millet and beef: millet is the leader of all grains, and cattle are animals with earth properties, both having a sweet and harmonious nature, which matches the characteristics of this season. In autumn, people eat hemp and dog meat: hemp belongs to metal, and dogs are also animals with metal properties, so they are eaten in accordance with the season. In winter, people eat millet and pork: millet has a spreading nature and belongs to fire, while pigs are animals with water properties, combining fire and water, making them suitable as food in winter.

此之五食，義有不同。春猶寒，食溫；夏方熱，食寒。此意可解者。甘味和，故隨時適用，此亦可解。秋冬兩食，此應宜熱，所以不熱，其故何也？若依蔡邕解，直云食味相宜，則無復疑；若依鄭解，則誠未盡。今廣鄭言：少陽、太陽，其氣舒散；少陰、太陰，其氣斂閉。故河上公解《老子》言：躁氣在上，陽氣伏於下，所以故寒；靜氣在上，陰氣伏於下，所以故熱。人體陰陽，義亦如是。春夏舒散，陽氣開發，宜以溫食，用和陰氣；秋冬閉斂，陽氣在內，宜用寒食，以調陽氣。冬兼水火，又異於秋，正以藏閉之時，事甚於秋，故均以水火也。

These five seasonal foods have different meanings. In spring, it is still cold, so warm foods are eaten; in summer, it is very hot, so cold foods are eaten. These two are easy to understand; the sweet taste is mild and can be used at any time, which also makes sense. However, for autumn and winter, according to reason, one should eat warm foods, so why are cold foods used instead? If we follow Cai Yong's explanation, which simply says "food should be in harmony with the season," then it is acceptable, and there is no need to ask further questions. But if we follow Zheng Xuan's explanation, it is not thorough enough. Now I will complete Zheng Xuan's explanation: the qi of Shaoyang (spring) and Taiyang (summer) spreads outward, while the qi of Shaoyin (autumn) and Taiyin (winter) retreat inward. Therefore, He Shanggong's commentary on the "Dao De Jing" says: when restless qi is on the surface, the yang qi is actually hidden below, so the ground appears cold; when calm qi is on the surface, the yin qi is hidden below, so the ground appears warm. The yin and yang in the human body follow the same principle: in spring and summer, the qi spreads outward, yang qi rises to the surface, so warm foods are suitable to harmonize the internal yin qi; in autumn and winter, the qi retreats inward, yang qi is hidden inside, so cold foods are suitable to regulate the hidden yang qi. In winter, both water and fire properties are used, which is different from autumn, because winter is a time of sealing and storing, and the degree of internal concealment is more intense than in autumn, so water and fire are used together to achieve balance.

今又取《甲乙》以並鄭義，微有乖張。《甲乙》以羊麥俱苦，皆是火味；鄭玄雲羊火畜同，以麥屬木，此是取其孚甲之形，用溫還同。《甲乙》以菽醎雞辛；鄭玄雲菽合水同，雞屬木異，此取其將旦而鳴，近寅木故，又振羽翼，有陽性也，則是酉鳥屬金為實。《甲乙》以麻犬俱酸；鄭以麻犬俱金，酸是木味，用調金氣，以少陽之氣味調少陰之氣，理則可通，金還調金，恐乖和適。《甲乙》以黍辛彘醎；鄭玄雲彘合水同，黍屬火異，此言黍色赤性熱，故以為火。

Now taking the view of the "Jia Yi Jing" and comparing it with Zheng Xuan's interpretation, there are slight differences between the two. The "Jia Yi Jing" considers both sheep and wheat as bitter, both belonging to the fire element; Zheng Xuan agrees that sheep are fire animals, but he classifies wheat under wood, based on the splitting of the husk, which is a form of imagery. In terms of warmth, it still aligns with the "Jia Yi Jing." The "Jia Yi Jing" says beans are salty and chickens are pungent; Zheng Xuan agrees that beans belong to water, but he classifies chickens as wood, which differs from the "Jia Yi Jing." Zheng Xuan's reasoning is that chickens crow at dawn, close to the hour of Yin, which belongs to wood, and their flapping wings have a yang nature. In reality, chickens correspond to the You position, which belongs to metal. The "Jia Yi Jing" says that hemp and dogs are sour; Zheng Xuan classifies both hemp and dogs as metal. Sour is the taste of wood, so using it to regulate the metal element is equivalent to using the taste of the lesser yang to regulate the lesser yin, which makes sense. If Zheng Xuan uses metal to regulate metal, it might lose the proper balance. The "Jia Yi Jing" says that millet is pungent and pigs are salty; Zheng Xuan agrees that pigs belong to water, but he classifies millet as fire, which differs from the "Jia Yi Jing." His reasoning is that millet is red in color and hot in nature, so it is classified as fire.

若依鄭意，以如前解；若以《甲乙》、《明堂月令》之意，夏食合冷者，欲令調炎暑鬱毒之氣；冬食亦寒者，去藏中伏熱；春寒用溫，二意不殊；秋以少陽和於少陰，為有殺氣，故以生味相補。鄭全乖越。《周禮·天官》云：凡和，春多酸，夏多苦，秋多辛，冬多醎，調以滑甘。解有兩家：一雲宜從時氣，春食須多酸，夏食須多苦；一雲多者，過也，春食過酸，宜減其醎味，夏食過苦，宜減其酸味，是以後句雲調以滑甘。

If following Zheng Xuan's interpretation, the explanation is as mentioned above; but if following the meaning of the "Jia Yi Jing" and the "Mingtang Yueling," there is another approach: in summer, one should eat cold foods to subdue the accumulated scorching and toxic heat; in winter, one should eat cold foods to eliminate the hidden heat stored within the body; in spring, when it is still cold, using warm foods is in agreement with both views; in autumn, one should use the flavors of Shaoyang to harmonize the Qi of Shao Yin, because autumn has a cutting and killing quality, so one should use the flavors that promote growth to supplement it. In comparison, Zheng Xuan's view is entirely contrary. The "Zhou Li · Tian Gao · Shi Yi" says: "In adjusting food, in spring, use more sour flavors, in summer, more bitter, in autumn, more pungent, and in winter, more salty, and use slippery and sweet flavors to balance." This statement has two interpretations: one says that one should follow the climatic energies, eating more sour in spring and more bitter in summer; the other says that "more" means "excess," so if sour is eaten too much in spring, one should reduce salty, and if bitter is eaten too much in summer, one should reduce sour, hence the latter part says to "balance with slippery and sweet flavors."

今依前解，四時之味，各隨時氣所當，故逐時醎苦酸辛，養體之宜。土既居中，總戴四財，是以四時味兼，須甘味以調之。又云：會膳食之所宜，牛宜稌，稌，稻也；羊宜黍，豕宜稷，犬宜梁，鳥宜麥，魚宜菰，菰，雕胡也。凡君子之食，恆放焉。凡藥，酸養骨，苦養氣，甘養肉，辛養筋，醎養脈，此並相扶之義。

Here the first interpretation is adopted: the flavors of the four seasons are determined by the prevailing qi of each season, so the flavors commonly used according to the seasons are salty, bitter, sour, and pungent respectively, which are suitable for health preservation. Earth is in the center and oversees the use of the other four directions, so the flavors of the four seasons all include a portion of earth flavor, which needs to be harmonized with sweetness. The Book of Rites also says that meat and grain should be properly combined—beef with rice (tú is rice), mutton with millet, pork with millet (jì), dog meat with millet (liáng), fowl with wheat, and fish with broomcorn millet (gū is broomcorn millet). All the meals of the gentlemen are usually prepared according to this pairing. As for the properties of medicinal substances, the Book of Rites says: sour flavor nourishes bones, bitter flavor nourishes qi, sweet flavor nourishes flesh, pungent flavor nourishes sinews, and salty flavor nourishes blood vessels—these all explain the principles of the five flavors supporting different parts of the body.

《河圖》云：人食無極醎，使腎氣盛，心氣衰，令人發狂，喜衂、吐血，心神不定；無極辛，使肺氣盛，肝氣衰，令人懦怯悲愁，目盲、髮白；無極甘，使脾氣盛，腎氣衰，令人痴淫洩精，腰背痛，利膿血；無極苦，使心氣盛，肺氣衰，令人果敢輕死，欬逆、胸滿；無極酸，使肝氣盛，脾氣衰，令人谷不消化，喑聾症固。此五藏相制克之義。

The book of the Heavenly Mandates, "The Yellow River Chart," explains the harm caused by overeating a single flavor: excessive salt consumption leads to excessive kidney energy and weakened heart energy (water overcoming fire), causing madness, frequent nosebleeds and vomiting blood, and restlessness of the mind; excessive consumption of pungent flavors leads to excessive lung energy and weakened liver energy (metal overcoming wood), resulting in cowardice, sorrow and worry, blindness and premature white hair; excessive consumption of sweet flavors leads to excessive spleen energy and weakened kidney energy (earth overcoming water), causing obsession and promiscuity, loss of vital energy, lower back pain, and bloody diarrhea; excessive consumption of bitter flavors leads to excessive heart energy and weakened lung energy (fire overcoming metal), causing recklessness and a tendency to die easily, coughing, shortness of breath, and chest fullness; excessive consumption of sour flavors leads to excessive liver energy and weakened spleen energy (wood overcoming earth), resulting in poor digestion, muteness and deafness, and the formation of chronic diseases. These are all examples of the five organs being regulated by the Five Phases through mutual control.

《黃帝養生經》云：酸入肝，辛葎任，苦入心，甘入脾，醎入腎。病在筋，無食酸；病在氣，無食辛；病在骨，無食醎；病在血，無食苦；病在肉，無食甘。口嗜而飲食之，不可多也，必自賊也，故名五賊。又云：肝病禁辛，心病禁醎，脾病禁酸，肺病禁苦，腎病禁甘，此皆所惡之味，故禁。

The Huangdi Preservation Classic says: sour flavors enter the liver, pungent flavors enter the lungs, bitter flavors enter the heart, sweet flavors enter the spleen, and salty flavors enter the kidneys. (In the original text, the word following 'pungent' was 'Xie Ren,' but the text is corrupted. According to the theory of five flavors entering the organs, it should be 'pungent enters the lungs.') Therefore, if there is a disease in the tendons, one should not eat sour flavors; if there is a disease in the qi, one should not eat pungent flavors; if there is a disease in the bones, one should not eat salty flavors; if there is a disease in the blood, one should not eat bitter flavors; if there is a disease in the flesh, one should not eat sweet flavors. To excessively desire one particular flavor and eat it constantly is not acceptable, and will inevitably harm the body. Therefore, these five flavors are called 'five thieves.' The book also says: liver disease should avoid pungent flavors, heart disease should avoid salty flavors, spleen disease should avoid sour flavors, lung disease should avoid bitter flavors, and kidney disease should avoid sweet flavors—these are the flavors that the respective organs dislike. (According to the principle of mutual control, pungent metal controls liver wood, salty water controls heart fire, sour wood controls spleen earth, bitter fire controls lung metal, and sweet earth controls kidney water.) Therefore, these flavors should be avoided.

又云：肺病宜食糯米飯、牛肉、棗、葵；心病宜食麥、羊肉、杏、薤；腎病宜食大豆、黃黍、彘肉、藿；肝病宜食麻、犬肉、李、韭；脾病宜食雞肉、桃、黍、蔥。此五宜食者，肝心腎三藏實，故各以其本味補之；脾肺虛，故以其子母相養者也。《春秋潛潭巴》云：五味生五藏者，醎生肝，酸生心，苦生脾，甘生肺，辛生腎。

The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Cultivation states that when the five internal organs are diseased, certain foods are suitable for each: for lung disease, eat glutinous rice, beef, dates, and Chinese kale; for heart disease, eat wheat, mutton, apricots, and leeks; for kidney disease, eat soybeans, yellow millet, pork, and bean leaves; for liver disease, eat flax, dog meat, plums, and leeks; for spleen disease, eat chicken, peaches, millet, and garlic. The reasoning behind these five combinations is that liver, heart, and kidney diseases are real syndromes, so each uses the taste corresponding to the organ to nourish it; spleen and lung diseases are deficiency syndromes, so the tastes that generate each other according to the principle of mutual generation are used to cultivate them. Another set of ideas from the esoteric text "Chunqiu Qiantanba" suggests that the five tastes generate the five organs: salty taste generates the liver, sour taste generates the heart, bitter taste generates the spleen, sweet taste generates the lung, and pungent taste generates the kidney. This is based on the sequence of mutual generation (water generates wood, wood generates fire, fire generates earth, earth generates metal, metal generates water) to pair the tastes with the organs.

《養生經》云：肝色青，宜食醎，稻米、牛肉、棗；心色亦，宜食酢，犬肉、李；肺色白，宜食甘，麥、羊肉、杏；脾色黃，宜食苦，大豆、豕肉、粟；腎色黑，宜食辛，黍、雞肉。此五食皆以所生能養其子也。又云：五味之入口也，各有所走，各有所病。酸走筋，多食之令人癃；醎走血，多食之令人渴；辛走氣，多食之令人洞心；苦走骨，多食之令人攣；甘走皮，多食之令人噁心。

The "Classic of Preservation of Life" also prescribes a dietary regimen based on the five colors and their corresponding flavors: for the liver, which is associated with the color green, one should consume salty foods such as rice, beef, and dates; for the heart, associated with red, one should consume sour foods such as vinegar, dog meat, and plums; for the lungs, associated with white, one should consume sweet foods such as wheat, mutton, and apricots; for the spleen, associated with yellow, one should consume bitter foods such as soybeans, pork, and millet; and for the kidneys, associated with black, one should consume pungent foods such as millet, chicken, and sorghum. These five pairings are based on the principle of "using the flavor that generates the organ to nourish it," meaning using the flavor that produces the organ to support it. The book also states that after entering the mouth, each flavor tends to affect a specific part of the body and can lead to specific ailments. Sour flavors affect the tendons, and excessive consumption causes difficulty in urination; salty flavors affect the blood, and excessive consumption causes thirst; pungent flavors affect the qi, and excessive consumption causes mental emptiness and anxiety; bitter flavors affect the bones, and excessive consumption causes stiffness in the tendons and muscles; sweet flavors affect the skin, and excessive consumption causes nausea.

辛散，酸收，甘緩，苦堅，醎濡。五穀為養，五菓為助，五畜為益，氣味合而服之，隨四時五藏所宜也。又云：人黃色宜甘，青色宜酸，黑色宜醎，赤色宜苦，白色宜辛，此皆依本體所宜。《家語》曰：食水者善遊能寒，食土者無心不息，食木者多力不治，食草者善走而愚，食桑者有緒為蛾，食肉者勇敢，食氣者神明而壽，食穀者惠巧，不食者不死而神。此皆氣味之類，故附而述之。五味所解，例多不舉，語經所明可解者如此。

In terms of medicinal properties: pungent flavors disperse, sour flavors astringe, sweet flavors harmonize, bitter flavors dry and strengthen, and salty flavors moisten. The five grains are used to nourish the fundamental essence, the five fruits to assist, and the five animals to enhance. The combination of qi and flavor should be taken according to the needs of the four seasons and the five internal organs. The book also says: if a person's complexion is yellow, they should take sweet flavors; if it is blue, sour; if black, salty; if red, bitter; if white, pungent. These are all determined according to one's constitution. The "Analects of Confucius" says: those that eat water (such as fish and turtles) are good at swimming and can endure cold; those that eat soil (such as earthworms) are heartless and never stop moving; those that eat wood (such as wood-boring insects) are strong and hard to tame; those that eat grass (such as deer and elk) are good at running but dull-witted; those that eat mulberry leaves (such as silkworms) can spin silk and form cocoons, transforming into moths; carnivorous beasts are brave; those who eat wind and breathe air are divine and long-lived; those who eat grains are intelligent and skillful; and those who eat nothing (immortals) do not die and communicate with the divine. These all belong to the principles of flavor, so they are recorded here. There are many more rules regarding the five flavors, but they cannot all be listed. The general ideas that can be understood from the classics are as above.

藏府者，由五行六氣而成也。藏則有五，稟自五行，為五性；府則有六，因乎六氣，是曰六情。情性及氣，別於後解，今論藏府所配合義。五藏者：肝、心、脾、肺、腎也；六府者：大腸、小腸、膽、胃、三焦、膀胱也。肝以配木，心以配火，脾以配土，肺以配金，腎以配水。膀胱為陽，小腸為陰，膽為風，大腸為雨，三焦為晦，胃為明。故杜子《春秋》醫和云：陰淫寒疾，陽淫熱疾，風淫末疾。末，四支也。雨淫腹疾，晦淫惑疾，明淫心疾。

The internal organs of humans are formed by the combination of the Five Phases and the Six Qi. There are five zang organs, each corresponding to one of the Five Phases, and they form the "five natures." There are six fu organs, each corresponding to one of the Six Qi, and they are called the "six emotions." The differences between emotion, nature, and Qi will be discussed in detail in the later section titled "On Emotion and Nature." Here, we will only explain the correspondence between the zang and fu organs and the Five Phases and Six Qi. The five zang organs are liver, heart, spleen, lung, and kidney. The six fu organs are large intestine, small intestine, gallbladder, stomach, triple burner, and bladder. The five zang organs correspond to the Five Phases: liver corresponds to wood, heart to fire, spleen to earth, lung to metal, and kidney to water. The six fu organs correspond to the Six Qi: bladder corresponds to yang (heat), small intestine to yin (cold), gallbladder to wind, large intestine to rain, triple burner to darkness, and stomach to brightness. Therefore, Du Yu's commentary on the first year of Zhao Gongyuan in the Spring and Autumn Annals records that the famous physician Yi He of the State of Qin diagnosed the illness of Duke Jin. He said that excessive yin Qi causes cold diseases, excessive yang Qi causes heat diseases, excessive wind Qi causes diseases of the limbs—"mo" refers to the limbs"—excessive rain Qi causes abdominal diseases, excessive darkness Qi causes confusion of mind and spirit, and excessive brightness Qi causes heart diseases.

夫藏者，以其藏於形體之內，故稱為藏；亦能藏受五氣，故名為藏。府者，以其傳流受納，謂之曰府。《白虎通》云：肝之為言扞也；肺之為言費也，情動得序也；心之為言任也，任於思也；腎之為言寫也，以竅寫；脾之為言辨也，所以積精稟氣。《元命苞》云：脾者，弁也，心得之而貴，肝得之而興，肺得之而大，腎得之以化。

The term "zang" refers to internal organs because they are hidden within the body, hence the term "zang" meaning concealment. Additionally, they are able to receive and hold the energies of the Five Phases, hence the name "zang." The term "fu" refers to organs that transmit and circulate, receiving and containing things like a treasury, hence the name "fu." The "Baihu Tong" explains the names of the five zang organs through homophonic explanations: "gan" (liver) is equivalent to "han" meaning defense, indicating its role in protection; "fei" (lung) is equivalent to "fei" meaning dispersion, indicating its function in distributing qi and emotions; "xin" (heart) is equivalent to "ren" meaning to bear or carry, indicating its role in thinking and deliberation; "shen" (kidney) is equivalent to "xie" meaning to discharge, indicating its function in excretion through the lower orifices; "pi" (spleen) is equivalent to "bian" meaning to distinguish or discern, indicating its role in accumulating essence and receiving qi and blood. The "Chunqiu Yuanmingbao" states that "pi" (spleen) is equivalent to "bian" (first), meaning that the heart gains dignity through the spleen, the liver gains prosperity through the spleen, the lung gains strength through the spleen, and the kidney gains the ability to transform and transport through the spleen. This implies that the spleen, as the central organ of earth, provides the essential nourishment for the other four zang organs.

肝仁，肺義，心禮，腎智，脾信。肝所以仁者何？肝，木之精，仁者好生，東方者，陽也，萬物始生，故肝象木，色青而有柔。肺所以義者何？肺，金之精，義者能斷，西方殺，成萬物，故肺象金，色白而有剛。心所以禮者何？心者，火之精，南方尊陽在上，卑陰在下，禮有尊卑，故心象火，色赤而光。

The five internal organs each correspond to one of the "Five Constants" virtues: the liver governs benevolence, the lung governs righteousness, the heart governs propriety, the kidney governs wisdom, and the spleen governs faithfulness. The "White Tiger Classic" asks and answers each question in turn. Why does the liver govern benevolence? Because the liver is the essence of wood, and benevolence is about cherishing life. The east belongs to yang, and all things begin to grow there, so the liver is compared to wood, with a green color and soft texture. Why does the lung govern righteousness? Because the lung is the essence of metal, and righteousness is about making decisions. The west is associated with肃杀 (harshness and killing), which causes things to mature, so the lung is compared to metal, with a white color and hard texture. Why does the heart govern propriety? Because the heart is the essence of fire. The south is where the exalted yang is above and the humble yin is below, and propriety is about distinguishing hierarchy. Therefore, the heart is compared to fire, with a red color and a luminous quality.

腎所以智者何？腎水之精，智者進而不止，無所疑惑，水亦進而不惑，故腎象水，色黑。水陰，故腎雙。脾所以信者何？脾，土之精，土主信，任養萬物為之象，生物無所私，信之至也，故脾象土，色黃。翼奉云：肝性靜，甲己主之；心性躁，丙辛主之；脾性力，戊癸主之；肺性堅，乙庚主之；腎性敬，丁壬主之。

Why is the kidney associated with wisdom? Because the kidney is the essence of water. Wise people constantly strive forward without rest, and their minds are free of doubt, just as water flows continuously without confusion. Therefore, the kidney is symbolized by water, which is black in color. Water is yin, and yin is associated with even numbers, so the kidney is formed as a pair on the left and right. Why is the spleen associated with trust? Because the spleen is the essence of earth. Earth is associated with trust, as it bears the responsibility of nurturing all things without bias, which is the ultimate expression of trust. Therefore, the spleen is symbolized by earth, which is yellow in color. In the Western Han dynasty, Yi Feng further associated the five internal organs with temperament based on the heavenly stems: the liver is calm, governed by the stems Jia and Ji; the heart is impetuous, governed by the stems Bing and Xin; the spleen is strong, governed by the stems Wu and Gui; the lung is firm, governed by the stems Yi and Geng; and the kidney is respectful, governed by the stems Ding and Ren. This method uses the concept of 'five harmonies' (Wu He) from the heavenly stems, where Jia and Ji harmonize to form earth, Yi and Geng harmonize to form metal, Bing and Xin harmonize to form water, Ding and Ren harmonize to form wood, and Wu and Gui harmonize to form fire.

許慎《五經異義》：《尚書》夏侯、歐陽說云，肝木，心火，脾土，肺金，腎水，此與前同。古文《尚晝》說云，脾木，肺火，心土，肝金，此四藏不同。案《禮記·月令》云：春祭以脾，夏祭以肺，季夏祭以心，秋祭以肝，冬祭以腎，皆五時自相得，則古《尚書》是也。

In Xu Shen's "Five Classics Disagreements," there are two different views. The modern text school of the "Book of Documents" (Shangshu), represented by Xiahou and Ouyang, says that the liver belongs to wood, the heart to fire, the spleen to earth, the lung to metal, and the kidney to water — this is the same as what was mentioned earlier. The ancient text school of the "Book of Documents" (the original text was mistakenly copied as "Shangzhu") says that the spleen belongs to wood, the lung to fire, the heart to earth, and the liver to metal — this classification of the four organs differs from the modern text school. Checking the "Monthly Ordinances" in the "Rites of Zhou," it records that in spring, the spleen is used in worship, in summer the lung, in late summer the heart, in autumn the liver, and in winter the kidney — this exactly corresponds with the five seasons. According to this, the classification of the ancient text school of the "Book of Documents" must be correct.

鄭玄駁曰：此文異事乖，未察其本意。《月令》五祭，皆言先，無言後者。凡言先，有後之辭。春祀戶，其祭也先脾後腎；夏祀竃，其祭也先肺後心肝；季夏祀中溜，其祭也先心後肺；秋祀門，其祭也先肝後心肺；冬祀行，其祭也先腎後脾。凡此之義，以四時之位、五藏之上下次之耳。冬位在後，而腎在下；夏位在前，而肺在上；春位小前，故祭先脾；秋位小卻，故祭先肝。肝腎脾俱在鬲下，肺心俱在鬲上，祭者必三，故有先後焉。此義不與行氣同也。

Zheng Xuan refuted saying: This is mixing two different things together, failing to grasp the original meaning of the "Monthly Orders." The five seasonal sacrifices recorded in the "Monthly Orders" all mention only "first using a particular organ," without ever saying "later using another organ." Whenever "first" is mentioned, it implicitly includes "later." In spring, when sacrificing to the household deity, the spleen is used first, then the kidney; in summer, when sacrificing to the kitchen deity, the lung is used first, then the heart and liver; in late summer, when sacrificing to the central earth deity, the heart is used first, then the lung; in autumn, when sacrificing to the gate deity, the liver is used first, then the heart and lung; in winter, when sacrificing to the road deity, the kidney is used first, then the spleen. The reasoning behind this order is based solely on the directional positions of the four seasons and the relative positions of the five internal organs in the body: in winter, the position is at the back and the kidney is located lower; in summer, the position is at the front and the lung is located higher; in spring, the position is slightly forward, hence the spleen is used first; in autumn, the position is slightly backward, hence the liver is used first. The liver, kidney, and spleen are all below the diaphragm, while the lung and heart are above the diaphragm. In each sacrifice, three organs are used, hence the distinction of first and later. This sequence of order is not the same as the principle of the five elements and their corresponding energies.

《八十一問》云：五藏俱等，心肺獨在鬲上何？對曰：心主氣，肺主血，血行脈中，氣行脈外，相隨上下，故曰營衛，故令心肺在鬲上也。《甲乙經》云：黃帝問岐伯曰，人有五藏，藏有五變。肝為牡藏，其色青，其時春，其日甲乙；心為牡藏，其色赤，其時夏，其日丙丁；脾為牝藏，其色黃，其時季夏，其日戊己；肺為牝藏，其色白，其時秋，其日庚辛；腎為牝藏，其色黑，其時冬，其日壬癸。

The Eighty-One Difficult Classics pose a question: although the five internal organs are of equal status, why are the heart and lungs located above the diaphragm? The answer is: the heart governs qi, and the lung governs blood; blood circulates within the vessels, while qi circulates outside the vessels. The two move together upward and downward, circulating throughout the body. Together they are called "ying and wei" (ying refers to blood, wei refers to qi). Therefore, the heart and lungs are placed above the diaphragm to oversee and control the entire process. The Classic of the Eleven Meridians records that the Yellow Emperor asked Qibo, a sage, about the human body having five internal organs, each with five corresponding transformations. Qibo answered: the liver is a "male organ," which is yang in nature, with a blue color, corresponding to spring, and the heavenly stem is Jia and Yi; the heart is also a male organ, with a red color, corresponding to summer, and the heavenly stem is Bing and Ding; the spleen is a "female organ," which is yin in nature, with a yellow color, corresponding to late summer, and the heavenly stem is Wu and Ji; the lung is a female organ, with a white color, corresponding to autumn, and the heavenly stem is Geng and Xin; the kidney is a female organ, with a black color, corresponding to winter, and the heavenly stem is Ren and Gui.

《素問》曰：肝者，魂之所居，陰中之小陽，故通春氣；心者，生之本，神之所處，為陽中之大陽，故通夏氣；脾者，倉廩之本，名曰興化，能化糟粕，轉味出入，至陰之類，故通土氣；肺者，氣之本，魄之所處，陽中之少陰，故通秋氣；腎者主蟄，封藏之本，精之所處，陰中之太陰，故通冬氣。又云：春無食肝，夏無食心，季夏無食脾，秋無食肺，冬無食腎。

The *Su Wen* says: The liver is the dwelling place of the soul, belonging to the Yin within the Lesser Yang, so it corresponds with the spring qi; the heart is the root of life and the dwelling place of the spirit, belonging to the Yang within the Taiyang, so it corresponds with the summer qi; the spleen is the fundamental storehouse of the body, called "Xinghua," which can rot and digest coarse waste, transform flavors, and manage the intake and output of food, belonging to the extreme Yin, so it corresponds with the earth qi; the lung is the root of qi and the dwelling place of the corporeal spirit, belonging to the Yang within the Shaoyin, so it corresponds with the autumn qi; the kidney governs concealment and is the fundamental of storage, the dwelling place of essence, belonging to the Yin within the Taiyin, so it corresponds with the winter qi. The *Su Wen* also says: Do not eat liver in spring, heart in summer, spleen in late summer, lung in autumn, or kidney in winter—because the vital organ of the season is already vigorous, and it is not appropriate to further supplement with similar substances.

《周禮》疾醫掌養萬人之疾病者，以肝為木，心為火，脾為土，肺為金，腎為水，則疾多瘳；反其術，則死。《月令》中溜之禮，以陰陽遂退為次；《白虎通》及《素問》醫治之書，用行實為驗，故其所配是也。《白虎通》又云：木所以浮，金所以沈者何？子生於母義。肝以沈，肺以浮何？有知者尊其母也。一說云：甲木畏金，以乙妻庚，受庚之化，木法其本，直甲故浮，肝法其化，直乙故沈；庚金畏火，以辛妻丙，受丙之化，金法其本，直庚故沈，肺法其化，直辛故浮。

In the "Rites of Zhou," the official "Ji Yi" is responsible for treating the diseases of the people. They treat diseases according to the Five Phases, assigning them to liver (wood), heart (fire), spleen (earth), lung (metal), and kidney (water). Most diseases can be cured in this way; if the treatment is reversed, the patient will die. The order of the "Zhong Liu" ceremony in the "Monthly Orders" is arranged according to the movement of yin and yang. The "Bai Hu Tong" and the "Su Wen" are books that discuss practical medical treatment, using the actual effects of the Five Phases to verify their methods, so their system is considered valid. The "Bai Hu Tong" also asks: wood is naturally floating, and metal is naturally sinking. Why does the liver, which belongs to wood, sink, and the lung, which belongs to metal, float? The answer is based on the principle of the child following the mother, as things with consciousness honor their mother. Another explanation uses the combination of heavenly stems and earthly branches: the wood stem Jia fears metal, so it marries its younger sister Yi to Geng. Yi is transformed by Geng; if wood follows its original stem Jia, it floats, but the liver follows its transformed sister Yi, so it sinks. The metal stem Geng fears fire, so it marries its younger sister Xin to Bing. Xin is transformed by Bing; if metal follows its original stem Geng, it sinks, but the lung follows its transformed sister Xin, so it floats.

河上公注《老子》云：肝藏魂，肺藏魄，心藏神，腎藏精，脾藏志，五藏盡傷，則五神去矣。道經義云：魂居肝，魄在肺，神處心，精藏腎，志托脾。此與《素問》同。魂為木氣，神為火氣，志為土氣，魄為金氣，精為水氣。魂通於目，神通於舌，志通於口，魄通於鼻，精通於耳。

Heavenly Master He Shanggong's commentary on the "Laozi" says: the liver houses the soul, the lungs house the spirit, the heart houses the mind, the kidneys house essence, and the spleen houses will. If all five internal organs are injured, these five spirits will depart from the body. Daoist scriptures also state: the soul resides in the liver, the spirit resides in the lungs, the mind resides in the heart, essence is stored in the kidneys, and will is entrusted to the spleen — this is consistent with what is explained in the "Suwen." According to the Five Phases, the soul corresponds to wood energy, the mind corresponds to fire energy, will corresponds to earth energy, the spirit corresponds to metal energy, and essence corresponds to water energy. Each of them also connects to a particular orifice: the soul connects to the eyes, the mind connects to the tongue, will connects to the mouth, the spirit connects to the nose, and essence connects to the ears.

《甲乙經》云：鼻為肺之官，目為肝之官，口唇為脾之官，舌為心之官，耳為腎之官。故肺病喘息鼻張，肝病目閉眥青，脾病口唇黃干，心病舌卷短、顏赤，腎病權與顏黑黃、耳聾。此名五官，相書亦名五候，以鼻人中為一官，主心，餘並同。候者，以五藏善惡色出五官，可占候吉凶也。鼻人中，猶是口之分也。

The *Jia-Yi Jing* says: the nose is the organ of the lung, the eyes are the organs of the liver, the mouth and lips are the organs of the spleen, the tongue is the organ of the heart, and the ears are the organs of the kidney. Therefore, when the lung is diseased, one experiences shortness of breath and flaring of the nostrils; when the liver is diseased, the eyes are difficult to open and the corners of the eyes turn blue; when the spleen is diseased, the mouth and lips become dry, yellow, and withered; when the heart is diseased, the tongue becomes curled and shortened, and the face turns red; when the kidney is diseased, the cheekbones and face turn black or yellow, and the ears become dull. These five areas are called the "five organs" or "five signs" in divination texts. However, the philtrum below the nose is considered a separate organ, associated with the heart, while the rest remain the same. The term "sign" refers to the fact that the condition of the five internal organs will be reflected in the appearance of these five areas, allowing one to predict good or bad fortune. The philtrum is originally part of the mouth, so the two methods of classification are not contradictory.

《孝經援神契》云：肝仁，故目視；肺義，故鼻候；心禮，故耳司；腎信，故竅寫；脾智，故口誨。《元命苞》曰：目，肝使，肝氣仁而外照。《管子》曰：脾發為鼻，肝發為目，腎發為耳，肺發為口，心發為下竅。道家《太平經》云：肝神不在，目無光明；心神不在，唇青白；肺神不在，鼻不通；腎神不在，耳聾；脾神不在，舌不知甘味。又一說云：目主肝，耳主腎，鼻主心，舌主脾，口主肺。肝腎二藏，諸經並同。

The "Xiao Jing Yuan Shen Qi" says: the liver governs benevolence, hence the eyes can see; the lung governs righteousness, hence the nose can discern; the heart governs propriety, hence the ears can hear; the kidney governs faithfulness, hence the lower orifices can discharge; the spleen governs wisdom, hence the mouth can teach. It differs slightly from the "Bai Hu Tong" in the order of matching the five constants with the five viscera. The "Chun Qiu Yuan Ming Bao" says: the eyes are the envoys sent out by the liver, and the liver's qi is benevolent and thick, hence it can illuminate external objects. The "Guan Zi" has another system: the spleen externally manifests as the nose, the liver as the eyes, the kidney as the ears, the lung as the mouth, and the heart as the lower orifices. The Daoist text "Tai Ping Jing" discusses from the perspective of the presence or absence of the divine spirits: if the liver spirit is absent, the eyes lose their luster; if the heart spirit is absent, the lips turn pale or blue; if the lung spirit is absent, the nose becomes blocked; if the kidney spirit is absent, the ears become deaf; if the spleen spirit is absent, the tongue cannot taste sweetness. There is also another view: the eyes are governed by the liver, the ears by the kidney, the nose by the heart, the tongue by the spleen, and the mouth by the lung. Among these, the organs associated with the liver and kidney are consistently recognized by various texts.

肝主目者，肝，木藏也，木是陽，東方顯明之地，眼目亦光顯照了，故通乎目。道家《太式經》云：天曰洞視，主目，目主肝。天，陽也；肝亦陽；目精明，亦陽。目光顯見，兼有常法，如日陽精無缺而明也。腎主耳者，腎，水藏，水，陰也，北方陰暗之地，耳能聽聲，聲是陰微之象，故通乎耳。《太式經》曰：地曰洞聽，主耳，耳主腎。地，陰也。耳法虛，則納聲，水主虛，陰主虛，陰主幽。陰聲又非恆，如月盈虛也。

The liver governs the eyes because the liver is the wood organ, and wood belongs to yang. The east, where wood is located, is a bright and prominent place. The eyes are also bright and clear, capable of perceiving things, so they are connected. The Daoist text "Tai Shi Jing" says: "Heaven is called 'dòng shì' (seeing through), which governs the eyes, and the eyes govern the liver." Heaven belongs to yang, and the liver also belongs to yang. The clarity in the eyes is also yang; the eyes are visible and have a constant pattern, just like the sun's yang essence, which is never lacking and shines constantly. The kidney governs the ears because the kidney is the water organ, and water belongs to yin. The north, where water is located, is a dark place. The ears can only hear sounds, and sound is a subtle and yin-like phenomenon, so they are connected. The "Tai Shi Jing" says: "Earth is called 'dòng tīng' (hearing through), which governs the ears, and the ears govern the kidney." Earth belongs to yin; the structure of the ears is hollow, which allows them to receive sound. Water is also associated with emptiness, and yin is also associated with emptiness. Moreover, sound is not as constant as sunlight, just as the moon has waxing and waning phases.

脾心肺三藏及候，各有異說。《甲乙》以鼻應肺，道家以鼻應心，《管子》以鼻應脾。《甲乙》應肺者，鼻以空虛納氣，肺亦虛而受氣故也。道家鼻主心者，陽也。《老子經》云：天以五行，氣從鼻入，藏於心。鼻以空通出入息，高象天，故與天通，而氣藏於心也。《管子》以脾是土，鼻在面之中，故為其候。

As for the three internal organs corresponding to the sense organs, there are differing views among various schools. The "Jia Yi Jing" associates the nose with the lung, Daoism associates the nose with the heart, and the "Guan Zi" associates the nose with the spleen. The "Jia Yi Jing" associates the nose with the lung because the nasal cavity is hollow and takes in air, just as the lung is hollow and receives air. Daoism associates the nose with the heart by emphasizing the yang aspect: the "Lao Zi" says that the sky sends the five elements' qi through the nose into the human body, which is stored in the heart. The nose is hollow and allows for breathing, and its position is high, symbolizing the sky, so it connects with the sky, and the inhaled qi is stored in the heart. The "Guan Zi" associates the nose with the spleen because the spleen belongs to earth, and the nose is located in the center of the face, just as earth is in the center, so the nose is considered the external manifestation of the spleen.

《甲乙》以脾應口，道家以肺應口，與《管子》同。《甲乙》以脾應口者，口是出納之門，脾為受盛之所，口能論說，脾能消化，故以相通。道家以肺應口者，肺，金也，金能斷割，口有牙齒，亦能決斷，是金象也。《管子》之意，恐亦然也。

The *Jia-Yi Jing* says the mouth corresponds to the spleen, while Daoist teachings say the mouth corresponds to the lung. This is the same as in the *Guanzi*. The *Jia-Yi Jing* says the mouth corresponds to the spleen because the mouth is the gateway for taking in food and expelling it, and the spleen is the place that receives and stores it. The mouth can speak and discuss, while the spleen can digest water and grain, so their functions are similar. Daoists say the mouth corresponds to the lung because the lung belongs to metal, and metal can cut, while the mouth has teeth that can bite and cut things, which is a symbol of metal. The *Guanzi* probably also paired the mouth with the lung for this reason.

《甲乙》以舌應心，道家以舌應脾，《管子》以心應下竅。《甲乙》以舌應心者，凡資身養命，莫過五味；辨了識知，莫過乎心。五味之入，猶舌知之；萬事是非，猶心鑑之。心欲有所陳，舌必言之，故心應以舌。道家以舌應脾者，脾者，陰也。《老子經》云：地飴人以五味，從口入，藏於胃。舌之所納，則有津實。地體既是質實，品味皆地所產，故舌與地通也。《管子》心應下竅者，以心能分別善惡，故通下竅，除滓穢也。

The *Jia-Yi Jing* says the tongue corresponds to the heart, while Daoist teachings say the tongue corresponds to the spleen. The *Guan Zi* says the lower orifices correspond to the heart. The *Jia-Yi Jing* says the tongue corresponds to the heart because there is nothing more essential for sustaining the body and preserving life than the five flavors, and nothing more essential for discernment than the heart. The five flavors enter the mouth and are discerned by the tongue; the right and wrong of all matters are judged by the heart. When the heart wants to express something, it must be spoken through the tongue, so the heart and tongue correspond. Daoist teachings say the tongue corresponds to the spleen because the spleen is yin. The *Lao Zi* says the earth provides the five flavors to people, which enter through the mouth and are stored in the stomach. The tongue receives these flavors along with their moist essence, and the earth itself is substantial. All flavors come from the earth, so the tongue corresponds to the earth. The *Guan Zi* says the heart corresponds to the lower orifices because the heart discerns good and evil, so it connects downward to the anus to expel waste and impurities.

五藏候在五官，口舌二官共在一處，餘不共者。口是脾候，脾，土也；舌是心候，心，火也。共處者，土寄治於火鄉也。舌在口內者，火於五行不常見也，須之則有，不用則隱，如舌在口內，開口卽見，閉口則藏。又，心為身之主，貴故在內也。土王四季，故曰四合也。《甲乙》、《素問》是診候之書，故從行實而辨；《道經》、《管子》各以一家之趣。

The signs of the five internal organs are manifested in the five external organs. Among these, the mouth and the tongue are located in the same place, while the others do not overlap. The mouth is the external manifestation of the spleen, which belongs to earth; the tongue is the external manifestation of the heart, which belongs to fire. The reason why the mouth and the tongue are in the same place is that earth "resides in the fire domain" — according to the principle of the five phases' mutual influence, earth does not have its own fixed position and follows fire to flourish in the south. Therefore, the orifice of the spleen and the orifice of the heart are combined. The tongue is located inside the mouth because fire does not constantly manifest in the five phases; when it is needed, it appears, and when it is not needed, it hides, just as the tongue is inside the mouth, visible when the mouth is open and hidden when the mouth is closed. Furthermore, the heart is the master of the whole body and holds a high position, so it resides internally. Earth is strong in the last months of the four seasons, so it is said to be "combined with the four directions," having a share in each direction. The "Jia Yi Jing" and "Su Wen" are books about diagnosis and treatment, so they are judged according to clinical effectiveness. The "Dao Jing" and "Guan Zi" each express their own views, and there is no need to force them to be consistent.

六府者，《河圖》云：肺合大腸，大腸為傳道之府；心合小腸，小腸為受盛之府；肝合膽，膽為中精之府；脾合胃，胃為五穀之府；腎合膀胱，膀胱為津液之府；三焦孤立，為中瀆之府。《甲乙》、《素問》說同。大腸為傳道之府者，肺通於鼻，鼻出入氣，大腸傳道五穀氣之道，故為其府。小腸為受盛之府者，心通於舌，舌進五味，小腸納之，故為受盛之府也。膽為中精府者，肝通於目，目是精明之物，又精神之主，故曰為中精府也。胃為五穀府者，脾通於口，口入五穀而胃受之，故為其府。

The six腑 are paired with the five脏 according to the Yellow River Chart. The large intestine is called the "transmitting channel腑" because it is responsible for conveying the qi of the five grains; it is paired with the lung. The small intestine is called the "receiving and holding腑" because it receives and holds the five flavors, which descend from the mouth through the tongue; it is paired with the heart. The gallbladder is called the "central essence腑" because the liver is connected to the eyes, which are the organs of clarity and the seat of spirit, so the gallbladder stores the central essence. The stomach is called the "five grains腑" because the spleen is connected to the mouth, which takes in the five grains, and the stomach receives and digests them; it is paired with the spleen. The bladder is paired with the kidney as the "body fluid腑." Only the triple burner is not paired with any脏, standing alone as the "central channel腑," like the waterways in the human body. The "Ji Yi Jing" and "Su Wen" agree with this. Now let us explain each pairing. The large intestine is called the "transmitting channel腑" because the lung is connected to the nose, which controls the intake and outflow of qi, and the large intestine is the channel for conveying the qi of the five grains, hence it is paired with the lung. The small intestine is called the "receiving and holding腑" because the heart is connected to the tongue, which takes in the five flavors, and the five flavors descend through the small intestine, hence it is called the receiving and holding腑. The gallbladder is called the "central essence腑" because the liver is connected to the eyes, which are the organs of clarity and the seat of spirit, so the gallbladder stores the central essence. The stomach is called the "five grains腑" because the spleen is connected to the mouth, which takes in the five grains, and the stomach receives and digests them, hence it is paired with the spleen.

膀胱為津液之府者，腎是水藏，膀胱空虛受水，水清氣則為津液，濁氣則為涕唾，故以為其府。三焦為中瀆府者，五藏各合一府，三焦獨無所合，故曰孤立，處五藏之中，通上下行氣，故為中瀆府也。五藏而有六府，亦如六氣因五行生也，又如五性生六情也。

The bladder is called the腑 of body fluids because the kidney is the water organ, and the bladder is hollow and can hold body fluids; the clear part of water becomes body fluids, while the turbid part becomes saliva and mucus, hence it is paired with the kidney as its腑. The triple energizer is called the腑 of central channel because the five zang organs each have a corresponding腑, but the triple energizer has no zang to pair with, so it is said to be isolated; it is located between the five zang organs, connecting above and below to move qi, like an open channel, hence it is called the腑 of central channel. Although there are five zang organs and six fu organs, the numbers do not have to be equal, just as the six climatic influences arise from the five phases, and the five emotions arise from the five functions.

《素問》云：皮應大腸，其榮毛，主心；脈應小腸，其榮色，主腎；筋應膽，其榮爪，主肺；肉應胃，其榮唇，主肝；腠理毫毛應三焦膀胱，其榮髮，主脾。皮應大腸，其榮毛，主心者，心是身之君，皮是身之城郭，毛是身之羽衛，大腸是氣之道路也，故並相通。心是火藏，大腸是金府，故以配焉，丙辛之所主也。

The "Su Wen" further associates the six腑 with different parts of the body: skin corresponds to the large intestine, its brilliance is seen in the hair, and it is governed by the heart; vessels correspond to the small intestine, its brilliance is seen in the complexion, and it is governed by the kidney; sinews correspond to the gallbladder, its brilliance is seen in the nails, and it is governed by the lung; flesh corresponds to the stomach, its brilliance is seen in the lips, and it is governed by the liver; the skin pores and hair correspond to the triple burner and bladder, their brilliance is seen in the hair, and they are governed by the spleen. Xiao Ji explains each point. Skin corresponds to the large intestine, brilliance is in the hair, and it is governed by the heart: the heart is the sovereign of the body, the skin is the body's wall, the hair is the body's guard, and the large intestine is the passage for qi. The four are interconnected. The heart is a fire organ, and it is paired with the heavenly stem Bing; the large intestine is a metal腑, and it is paired with the heavenly stem Xin; Bing and Xin combine, so they are paired together.

脈應小腸，其榮色，主腎者，腎，水也，脈是血之溝渠，通流水，氣色是人之光采，血氣若盛，則容色壯悅，血氣若衰，則容顏枯悴。腎為水藏，小腸既受盛容著水氣，又是火府，故以配之，丁壬所主也。筋應膽，其榮爪，主肺者，筋是皮內之剛強也，爪是皮外之剛利也。肺是金藏，膽有剛精之性，又是木府，故以相配，乙庚所主也。

The pulse corresponds to the small intestine, the glow of the complexion corresponds to the kidney, and the tendons correspond to the lung. The kidney belongs to water, and the pulse is the channel through which blood flows, and what flows through it is water essence. The complexion is the radiance of a person; when blood and qi are abundant, the complexion is strong and bright; when blood and qi are deficient, the complexion becomes withered and dull. The kidney is the water organ, and it is paired with the heavenly stem Ren (壬). The small intestine, which receives and stores water qi, is itself a fire organ, and it is paired with the heavenly stem Ding (丁). Since Ding and Ren combine, they form a pair. The tendons correspond to the gallbladder, the glow of the nails corresponds to the lung, and the nails correspond to the lung. Tendons are strong substances within the skin and flesh, while nails are sharp and strong substances on the surface of the skin. The lung is the metal organ, and it is paired with the heavenly stem Geng (庚). The gallbladder has a strong and sharp nature and is itself a wood organ, and it is paired with the heavenly stem Yi (乙). Since Yi and Geng combine, they form a pair.

肉應胃，其榮唇，主肝者，胃能消化五穀精氣為肉，五穀從口而入，故榮潤在唇。肝是木之藏，仁而能生，胃是土府，故以相配，甲己所主也。腠理毫毛應三焦膀胱，其榮髮，主脾者，毫毛因藉津潤，腠理本自開通。脾，受資味之所，因資味而得津潤開通，因津潤開通而生毛髮。書云：髮是血之餘。脾是土之藏，三焦、膀胱併為水之府，故以相配，戊癸所主也。

The flesh corresponds to the stomach, the glory is on the lips, and it is governed by the liver: the stomach can digest the essence of grains into flesh, and grains enter through the mouth, so its glory is shown on the lips. The liver is the wood organ, paired with the heavenly stem Jia, which is benevolent and can generate and nourish; the stomach is the earth腑, paired with the heavenly stem Ji. Jia and Ji combine, so they form a pair. The skin pores and hair correspond to the triple heater and bladder, the glory is in the hair, and it is governed by the spleen: hair depends on body fluids for nourishment, and the skin pores are naturally open; the spleen is the place that receives the taste of food, obtaining nourishment and openness from food, and from the nourishment and openness, hair grows. Ancient texts say: hair is the leftover qi of blood. The spleen is the earth organ, paired with the heavenly stem Wu; the triple heater and bladder are both water腑, paired with the heavenly stem Gui; Wu and Gui combine, so they form a pair.

脾配二府，餘四藏各配一府者，脾是土藏，土為君道，君卽陽也，陽數一，故藏不二也；三焦、膀胱並是水府，水為臣道，臣卽陰也，陰數偶，故府有二也。《管子》曰：脾生骨，腎生筋，肺生革，心生肉，肝生爪髮。《元命苞》云：肝生筋。脾生骨者，脾，土也，土能生木，骨是身之本，如木立於地上能成屋室，故脾生之。

Why does the spleen correspond to two腑 while the other four zang organs each correspond to one腑? Because the spleen is a "土" organ, and "土" symbolizes the way of the sovereign, who is yang. Yang is represented by the number one (an odd number), so on the zang side, there cannot be two. The sanjiao (triple burner) and the bladder are both "water"腑, and "water" symbolizes the way of the minister, who is yin. Yin is represented by even numbers, so on the腑 side, there can be two. The "Five Zang Produce" theory in the "Guanzi" states: the spleen produces bones, the kidney produces sinews, the lung produces skin, the heart produces flesh, and the liver produces nails and hair. The "Chunqiu Yuanmengbao" says the liver produces sinews. Xiao Ji explains each point: the spleen produces bones because the spleen belongs to "土", which can generate "wood", and bones are the pillars of the body. Just as wooden beams are needed to support a house, the spleen produces bones.

腎生筋者，筋是骨之經絡，脈以流注，筋以相連節，並通血氣，腎水故生之。肺生革者，肺，金也，金能裁斷，革亦限斷，故肺生之。心生肉者，心，火也，肉是身之土地，故心生之。肝生爪髮者，肝，木也，爪是骨之餘，髮是血之餘，皆水木之氣，故肝生之。《元命苞》云以肝生筋，亦木氣之義，筋有枝條，象於木也。

The kidney produces sinews because sinews are the meridians of the bones: they allow the flow of blood and qi, connecting joints and ensuring the circulation of blood and qi throughout the body. Since the kidney belongs to water and is associated with fluidity, it gives rise to sinews. The lung produces skin because the lung belongs to metal, which is capable of cutting and shaping, and skin has the characteristic of being cut and divided. Therefore, the lung gives rise to skin. The heart produces flesh because the heart belongs to fire, and flesh is like the land of the body. Fire generates earth, so the heart gives rise to flesh. The liver produces nails and hair because the liver belongs to wood. Nails are the leftover qi of bone, and hair is the leftover qi of blood, both belonging to the qi of water and wood, so the liver gives rise to them. The *Chunqiu Yuanmingbao* says the liver produces sinews, also based on the principle of wood qi—sinews branch out like the branches and veins of a tree.

《河圖》云：仁慈惠施者，肝之精，悲哀過度則傷肝，肝傷則令目視芒芒；禮操列真，心之精，喜怒激切傷心，心傷則疾衂吐逆；和厚篤信者，脾之精，縱逸貪嗜則傷脾，脾傷則畜積不化，致否結之疾；義惠剛斷，肺之精，患憂憤勃則傷肺，肺傷則致欬逆失音；智辨謀略，腎之精，勞欲憤滿則傷腎，腎傷則喪精損命。

The Yellow River Chart connects the essence of the five internal organs with emotions, mental states, and diseases. Being kind and generous is due to the essence of the liver; excessive sorrow harms the liver, and when the liver is injured, vision becomes blurred. Observing propriety and upholding virtue, with sincerity in conduct, is due to the essence of the heart; excessive joy or anger harms the heart, and when the heart is injured, there is frequent nosebleeding and vomiting with reversed qi. Being harmonious, sincere, and trustworthy is due to the essence of the spleen; indulgence in ease and overindulgence in food and drink harms the spleen, and when the spleen is injured, food stagnates and becomes痞结 (a condition of obstruction). Upholding righteousness and showing kindness, being resolute and decisive, is due to the essence of the lungs; excessive worry and anger harms the lungs, and when the lungs are injured, there is coughing, reversed qi, and hoarseness. Being wise and eloquent, with many strategies, is due to the essence of the kidneys; overwork and indulgence, along with excessive anger, harms the kidneys, and when the kidneys are injured, there is loss of essence and shortened life.

此豈直違五常而損年命，亦破六情以亡國家也。至如桀、紂兩帝，並貪縱而喪其邦；梁、竇二臣，亦皆奢逸而傾其家。雖彭子以色延命，齊王因怒袪病，如此異轍，皆有調節之宜。節之則四大獲安，縱之則五藏成患。

These dangers are not only against the Five Constants and harmful to longevity, but they also destroy the Six Emotions and lead to the downfall of a state and family. For example, King Jie of Xia and King Zhou of Shang both lost their states due to greed and indulgence; the powerful ministers Liang Ji and Dou Xian of the Eastern Han Dynasty also destroyed their families through extravagance and licentiousness. Of course, there are also counterexamples: Pengzu extended his life through the art of sexual techniques, and King Qi of Qi removed a chronic illness by a sudden anger (referring to the old story where Wenzhi deliberately angered King Qi to treat his illness). These seemingly opposite approaches ultimately all come down to the four words "moderation and regulation": knowing self-restraint brings stability to earth, water, fire, and wind; but unrestrained indulgence turns the five internal organs into sources of calamity.

《素問》云：肝者為將軍之官，謀慮出焉；心者為君主之官，神明出焉；脾者倉廩之官，五味出焉；肺者相傅之官，治節出焉；腎者作強之官，伎巧出焉。肝者為將軍之官、謀慮出者，木性仁，仁者必能深思遠慮，恆欲利安萬物；將軍為行兵之主，必以謀慮為先。故兵書曰：兵以仁舉，則無不從；得之以仁分，則無不從悅。又曰：將無謀則士卒憂，將無慮則士卒去。故肝為將軍，出謀慮也。

In the "Su Wen · Ling Lan Mi Dian Lun," the functions of the five internal organs are compared to the duties of officials in the court: the liver is the general's organ, producing strategies and plans; the heart is the sovereign's organ, producing the spirit and wisdom; the spleen is the granary's organ, producing the five flavors; the lung is the prime minister's organ, producing governance and regulation; the kidney is the strong and capable organ, producing skills and techniques. Xiao Ji explains each point. The liver is called the general's organ because it produces strategies: the nature of wood is to be benevolent, and the benevolent person must be able to think deeply and plan far ahead, always thinking of benefiting all things and ensuring peace. The general is the commander of the army, and using troops must first rely on strategies and plans. Therefore, military books say: an army that fights under the banner of benevolence and righteousness will have no one who does not obey; distributing the spoils with benevolence and righteousness will have no one who does not be pleased and convinced. It also says: if the general lacks strategy, the soldiers will be anxious and fearful; if the general does not think carefully, the soldiers will scatter. Therefore, the liver is compared to the general, producing strategies.

心為主守之官，神明出者，火，南方陽光輝，人君之象。神為身之君，如君南向以治。《易》以離為火，居太陽之位，人君之象。人之運動、情性之作，莫不由心，故為主守之官，神明所出也。脾為倉廩之官，五味出者，萬物生則出土，死亦歸之，五穀之入，脾以受之，故五味之出，亦由於此也。

The heart is called the master organ that governs the spirit because the fire element is located in the south, where the bright sunlight shines, symbolizing the image of a sovereign ruler. The spirit is the sovereign of the body, just as a sovereign faces south to govern the world. The Zhou Changes use the Li trigram to represent fire, which is located in the position of the sun, also symbolizing the image of a sovereign. All human actions and emotional expressions originate from the heart, so it is called the master organ, from which the spirit arises. The spleen is called the granary organ that produces the five flavors because all things grow from the earth and return to the earth upon death; the five grains are ingested and transformed by the spleen, so the generation of the five flavors also originates from here.

肺為相傅之官，治節出者，金能裁斷，相傅之任明於治道，上下順教，皆有禮節，肺於五藏，亦治節所生。《樂緯》云：商者，章也，臣章明君德，以齊上下，相傅賢所由也。腎為作強之官，伎巧出者，水性是智，智必多能，故有伎巧，功則自強不息也。

The lung is the official of governance and regulation, for metal is capable of cutting and deciding, and the role of the prime minister and chief counselor is precisely to understand the ways of governing the state, ensuring that all people obey the commands and follow the rites. Among the five viscera, the lung is also the source of regulation. The "Music Divination" says "Shang corresponds to Zhang," meaning that ministers should clarify the virtue of the sovereign, thus bringing order to the hierarchy. Since the lung belongs to metal and governs the Shang tone, it is said that the prime minister and chief counselor, who are virtuous ministers, originate from here. The kidney is the organ of strength and skill, for water is associated with wisdom, and those who are wise are certainly versatile and skilled. Through persistent effort, they can achieve self-improvement without end.

《八十一問》曰：藏各有一，腎獨兩者何也？左者腎，右者命門，命門者，精神之所會也。《河圖》云：肝心出左，脾肺出右，腎與命門並出尺部，此脈候也。問曰：前解雲腎陰故雙，今言左腎右命門，此豈不自乖張乎？答曰：命門與腎，名異形同，水藏則體質不殊，故雙，主陰數；為名則左右兩別，故各有所主。猶如三焦、膀胱俱是水府，不妨兩號。

The Eighty-One Difficult Classics ask: All other organs have only one, but the kidney has two. Why is that? The answer is: The one on the left is called the kidney, and the one on the right is called the "Mingmen." The Mingmen is where the essence and spirit converge. The Yellow River Chart says: The pulses of the liver and heart appear on the left hand, and the pulses of the spleen and lung appear on the right hand. The kidney and Mingmen both appear in the chi section—this refers to the location for pulse diagnosis. Then someone else asks: Earlier it was explained that the kidney belongs to yin, and yin is even, so it is paired. Now it says the left is the kidney and the right is the Mingmen. Is this not contradictory? The answer is: The Mingmen and the kidney have different names but the same physical form. In terms of being water organs, they have no difference in their nature, so it is said they are paired, following the even number of yin. In terms of their names, they are distinguished as left and right, so each has its own function. This is similar to the Sanjiao and the bladder, which are both water organs, yet they have different names.

《老子經》及《素問》云心藏神者，神以神明照了為義，言心能明瞭萬事。神是身之君，象火，已如前解。腎藏精者，精以精靈叡智為稱，亦是精智氣，腎水智巧，故精藏焉。脾藏志者，脾土主總四行，多所趣向，志以心願趣向為目，故藏於脾。肝藏魂者，魂以運動為名，肝是少陽，陽性運動，木性仁，故魂亦主善，故藏於肝焉。肺藏魄者，魄以相著為名，肺為少陰，陰性恬靜，金主殺，魄又主惡，故以藏之。五藏所主，乃以神、精、志、魂、魄五種，就陰陽論，唯有二別，陽曰魂，陰曰魄。

The Classic of the Way and its Power and the Suwen both state that the heart houses the spirit: "Spirit" refers to the meaning of illumination and clear discernment, meaning the heart can clearly understand all things; spirit is the sovereign of the body, symbolized by fire, as explained earlier. The kidney houses essence: "Essence" refers to the term for refined wisdom; essence is the refined intelligent qi. The kidney belongs to water and governs wisdom and skill, so essence is stored in the kidney. The spleen houses will: the spleen belongs to earth, overseeing the other four meridians, tending toward multiplicity, while "will" is named for its tendency toward aspirations, so it is housed in the spleen. The liver houses the soul: "Soul" is named for its ability to move; the liver belongs to the lesser yang, which is yang and active, and the wood element is associated with benevolence, so the soul also governs goodness, hence it is housed in the liver. The lung houses the corporeal spirit: "Corporeal spirit" is named for its attachment to the physical form; the lung belongs to the lesser yin, which is yin and tranquil, and the metal element is associated with肃杀 (severe and decisive), so the corporeal spirit also governs evil, hence it is housed in the lung. The five functions governed by the five viscera are spirit, essence, will, soul, and corporeal spirit, collectively called the "five spirits"; they are divided into five according to the five viscera, but if classified according to yin and yang, they are merely two categories: those belonging to yang are called souls, and those belonging to yin are called corporeal spirits.

河上公章句云：五氣清微，為精神、聽明、音聲、五性，其鬼曰魂。魂者，雄也，主出入於鼻，與天通。五味濁溽，為形骸、骨肉、血脈、六情，其鬼曰魄。魄者，雌也，出入於口，與地通。《家語》曰：宰我問孔子曰，聞鬼神之名，而不知其所謂。孔子曰：人生有氣，魂氣者，神之盛也；魄氣者，鬼之盛也。人生有死，死必歸土，此謂之鬼；魂氣歸乎天，此謂之神。合鬼與神而享之，教之至也。骨肉斃乎下，化為野土，其氣發揚乎上，此神之著也。聖人因人物之情，而明命鬼神，以為民則。燔燎羶薌，所以報氣也；薦黍稷，修肺肝，加以鬱暢，所以報魄也。

Heavenly Master Ho Shang Gong's commentary on the "Chapter of Laozi" says: The five phases' energies are clear, light, subtle, and refined, transforming into human spirit, hearing, sight, voice, and the five qualities. Its spirit is called "hun"; hun belongs to the yang, enters and exits through the nose, and connects with heaven. The five flavors are turbid, heavy, and moist, transforming into human body, bones, flesh, blood, and the six emotions. Its spirit is called "po"; po belongs to the yin, enters and exits through the mouth, and connects with earth. The "Kongzi Jiayu" records: Zai Wo asked Confucius, saying that he often hears the term "ghost and spirit," but does not understand what it refers to. Confucius said: When a person is alive, there is qi. Hun qi is the extreme of spirit, and po qi is the extreme of ghost. When a person dies, he must return to the earth, which is called "ghost"; when hun qi ascends to heaven, it is called "spirit." Combining ghost and spirit in worship is the ultimate of education. When the body decays into the earth and becomes wild soil, its qi ascends, which is the manifestation of spirit. Sages follow human feelings and natural principles, clearly naming ghosts and spirits to serve as a standard for teaching the people: burning animal fat to let its fragrance rise is to offer to the hun qi; offering millet and rice, preparing the lungs and liver of sacrificed animals, and adding the fragrant wine yuchang is to offer to the po.