Bai Hu Tong Yi (白虎通義) · Volume 6

三微者，何謂也？陽氣始施，黃泉，萬物動微而未著也。十一月之時，陽氣始養根株，黃泉之下，萬物皆赤。赤者，盛陽之氣也，故周為天正，色尚赤也。十二月之時，萬物始牙而白。白者陰氣，故殷為地正，色尚白也。十三月之時，萬物始達，孚由而出，皆黑，人得加功，故夏為人正，色尚黑。《尚書大傳》曰：“夏以孟春月為正，殷以季冬月為正，周以仲冬月為正。夏以十三月為正，色尚黑，以平旦為朔。殷以十二月為正，色尚白，以雞鳴為朔。周以十一月為正，色尚赤，以夜半為朔。”不以二月後為正者，萬物不齊，莫適所統，故必以三微之月也。三正之相承，若順連環也。孔子承周之弊，行夏之陸，知繼十一月正者當用十三月也。

What is meant by the three subtle beginnings? Yang qi begins to move, in the Yellow Springs, and the myriad things stir but are still subtle and not yet manifest. In the eleventh month, yang qi begins to nourish the roots and stumps, below the Yellow Springs, and all things are red. Red is the qi of full yang, so the Zhou had the calendar of Heaven and honored the color red. In the twelfth month, the myriad things begin to sprout and are white. White is the qi of yin, so the Yin (Shang) had the calendar of Earth and honored the color white. In the thirteenth month, the myriad things begin to penetrate and emerge in their shells, all black, and people can work upon them, so the Xia had the calendar of Man and honored the color black. The Great Commentary on the Book of Documents says: "The Xia took the first month of spring as the beginning of the year, the Yin took the last month of winter, and the Zhou took the middle month of winter. The Xia took the thirteenth month as the beginning, honored black, and began the day at dawn. The Yin took the twelfth month, honored white, and began the day at cockcrow. The Zhou took the eleventh month, honored red, and began the day at midnight." The beginning is not placed after the second month because the myriad things are then not uniform and have nothing to follow, so the three months of subtle beginnings must be used. The three calendars follow one another like a linked chain. Confucius, succeeding the decline of the Zhou, put the Xia calendar into practice, knowing that what follows the calendar beginning in the eleventh month should use the thirteenth.

天道左旋，改正者右行何也？改正者，非改天道也，但改日月耳。日月右行，故改正亦右行也。

The Way of Heaven turns to the left, yet the change of calendar goes to the right. Why? Changing the calendar does not change the Way of Heaven; it changes only the sun and moon. The sun and moon travel to the right, so the change of calendar also goes to the right.

日尊於月，不言正日言正月何也？積日成月，物隨月而變，故據物為正也。

The sun is more honored than the moon, yet one speaks of correcting the month rather than the day. Why? Days accumulate into months, and things change with the months, so the beginning is set according to things.

天質地文，質者據質，文者據文，周反統天正何也？質文再而復，正朔三而改，三微、質文數不相配，故正不隨質文也。

Heaven is plain and Earth is refined; the plain follow the plain and the refined follow the refined; yet the Zhou, on the contrary, took the calendar of Heaven. Why? Plainness and refinement recur after two, while the calendar beginning changes after three; the three subtle beginnings do not match the number of plainness and refinement, so the calendar does not follow plainness and refinement.

王者受命而起，或有所不改者何也？王者有改道之文，無改道之質。如君南面，臣北面，皮弁素積，聲味不可變，哀慼不可改，百王不易之道也。

When a king receives the mandate and rises, some things are not changed. Why? A king changes the refinement of the Way but does not change its plain substance. For example, the ruler faces south and the minister faces north, the white-deerskin cap and plain skirt, sounds and flavors cannot be altered, and grief cannot be changed; these are the Way that a hundred kings have not changed.

王者所以存二王之後何也？所以尊先王，通天下之三統也。明天下非一家之有，謹敬謙讓之至也。故封之百里，使得服其正色，用其禮樂，永事先祖。《論語》曰：“夏禮吾能言之，杞不足徵也；殷禮吾能言之，宋不足徵也。”《春秋傳》曰：“王者存二王之後，使服其正色，行其禮樂。”《詩》曰：“厥作將，常服黼旱。”言微子服殷之冠，助祭於周也。《周頌》曰：“有客有客，亦白其馬。”此微子朝周也。二王之後若有聖德受命而王，當因其改之耶？天下之所安得受命耶，非其運次者。

Why does a king preserve the descendants of the two earlier dynasties? In order to honor the former kings and connect the three lines of rule under heaven. It shows that the world is not the possession of one house, and is the utmost of reverence and modesty. So he enfeoffs them with a hundred li, enabling them to wear their own proper colors, use their own rites and music, and serve their ancestors forever. The Analects says: "I can speak of the rites of the Xia, but Qi cannot supply the evidence; I can speak of the rites of the Yin, but Song cannot supply the evidence." The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "A king preserves the descendants of the two earlier dynasties, letting them wear their proper colors and practice their rites and music." The Book of Songs says: "In the libation they always wear the embroidered robe and the Yin cap." This means that the Viscount of Wei, wearing the cap of the Yin, assisted at the sacrifice in Zhou. The Odes of Zhou say: "There is a guest, there is a guest, and his horse too is white." This is the Viscount of Wei at the Zhou court. If a descendant of the two earlier dynasties had sage virtue and received the mandate and became king, should he change things by following them? Could the one whom the world finds at peace receive the mandate? It is not his turn in the sequence.

王者，必一質一文何？以承天地，順陰陽。陽之道極則陰道受，陰之道極則陽道受，明二陰二陽不能相繼也。質法天、文法地而已，故天為質，地受而化之，養而成之，故為文。《尚書大傳》曰：“王者一質一文，據天地之道。”《禮三正記》曰：“質法天，文法地也。”帝王始起，先質後文者，順天下之道、本末之義、先後之序也。事莫不先有質性，乃後有文章也。

Why must a king be alternately plain and refined? To carry on Heaven and Earth and follow yin and yang. When the Way of yang reaches its utmost, the Way of yin receives it; when the Way of yin reaches its utmost, the Way of yang receives it. This shows that two yins or two yangs cannot succeed one another. Plainness takes Heaven as its model and refinement takes Earth, that is all; so Heaven is plain, and Earth receives it, transforms it, nourishes it and brings it to completion, so it is refinement. The Great Commentary on the Book of Documents says: "A king is alternately plain and refined, according to the Way of Heaven and Earth." The Record of the Three Calendars says: "Plainness takes Heaven as its model; refinement takes Earth." When emperors and kings first arise, plainness comes first and refinement after, following the way of the world, the sense of root and branch, and the order of before and after. There is nothing that does not first have a plain nature and only then have outward form.

王者設三教何？承衰救弊，欲民反正道也。三王之有失，故立三教，以相指受。夏人之王教以忠，其失野，救野之失莫如敬。殷人之王教以敬，其失鬼，救鬼之失莫如文。周人之王教以文，其失薄，救薄之失莫如忠。繼周尚黑，制與夏同。三者如順連環，周而復始，窮則反本。

Why does a king establish three teachings? To take over from decline, rescue from abuses, and bring the people back to the right Way. Each of the three kings had his shortcoming, so the three teachings were set up to hand down to one another with mutual correction. The kings of the Xia taught with loyalty, and their shortcoming was rusticity; to cure rusticity nothing is better than reverence. The kings of the Yin taught with reverence, and their shortcoming was superstition about ghosts; to cure that nothing is better than refinement. The kings of the Zhou taught with refinement, and their shortcoming was thinness; to cure thinness nothing is better than loyalty. Following the Zhou, the honored color was black and the institutions were the same as the Xia. The three follow one another like a linked chain, ending and beginning again, and when exhausted they return to the root.

《樂稽耀嘉》曰：“顏回向三教變，虞夏何如？”曰：教者，所以追補敗政，靡弊溷濁，謂之治也。舜之承堯，無為易也。”或曰：三教改易，夏后氏始。高宗亦承弊，所以不改教何？明子無改父之道也。何以知高宗不改之？以周之教承以文也。三教所以先忠者，行之本也。三教一體而分，不可單行，故王者行之有先後。何以言三教並施、不可單行也？以忠、敬、文無可去者也。

The Music Records, Auspicious Brilliance, says: "Yan Hui asked about the change of the three teachings: what about Yu and Xia?" The answer: teaching is used to make up for failed government and for decadence and muddle, and this is called governing. Shun succeeded Yao and there was nothing to change. Some say the three teachings were changed starting from the House of Xia. Gaozong also inherited abuses, yet did not change the teaching. Why? To show that a son does not change his father's way. How do we know Gaozong did not change it? Because the Zhou teaching that followed used refinement. Why does the order of the three teachings begin with loyalty? It is the root of practice. The three teachings are one body divided and cannot be carried out singly, so kings put them into practice in a sequence. On what basis do we say the three teachings are applied together and cannot be carried out singly? Because none of loyalty, reverence or refinement can be dispensed with.

教所以三何？法天、地、人，內忠外敬，文飾之，故三而備也。即法天、地、人，各何施？忠法人，敬法地，文法天。人道主忠，人以至道教人，忠之至也；人以忠教，故忠為人教也。地道謙卑，天之所生，地敬養之，以敬為地教也。

Why are there three teachings? They take Heaven, Earth and Man as their models: inwardly loyalty, outwardly reverence, then adorned with refinement, and so three is complete. Since they take Heaven, Earth and Man as models, what is each applied to? Loyalty models Man, reverence models Earth, and refinement models Heaven. The Way of Man governs loyalty; man teaches man with the supreme Way, which is the utmost of loyalty; man teaches with loyalty, so loyalty is the teaching of Man. The Way of Earth is lowly and humble: what Heaven brings forth, Earth reverently nourishes, so reverence is taken as the teaching of Earth.

教者，何謂也？教者，效也。上為之，下效之，民有質樸，不教而成。故《孝經》曰：“先王見教之可以化民。”《論語》曰：“不教民戰，是謂棄之。”《尚書》曰：“以教祗德。”《詩》云：“爾之教矣，欲民斯效。”

What is meant by teaching (jiao)? Jiao is xiao, imitation: those above act and those below imitate. People have a plain nature and can be fulfilled even without teaching. So the Classic of Filial Piety says: "The former kings saw that teaching could transform the people." The Analects says: "To lead the people into war without teaching them is to throw them away." The Book of Documents says: "Teach them to respect virtue." The Book of Songs says: "Your teaching is what the people imitate."

忠形於悃誠，故失野；敬形於祭祀，故失鬼；文形於飾兒，故失薄。

Loyalty shows itself in sincerity, so its shortcoming is rusticity; reverence shows itself in sacrifice, so its shortcoming is superstition about ghosts; refinement shows itself in adorning one's demeanor, so its shortcoming is thinness.

夏后氏用明器，殷人用祭器，周人兼用之何？謂曰：夏后氏教以忠，故先明器，以奪孝子之心也。殷教以敬，故先祭器，敬之至也。周人教以文，故兼用之，周人意至文也。孔子曰：“之死而致死之，不仁而不可為也；之死而致生之，不知而不可為也。”故有死道焉，以奪孝子之心也；有生道焉，使人勿倍也。故竹器不成用，木器不成斫，瓦器不成沫，琴瑟張而不平，竽笙備而不和，有鐘磬而無иね縣，示備物而不可用也。孔子曰：“為明器者善，為俑者不仁。塗車羞靈，自古有之。言今古皆然也。”

The House of Xia used spirit vessels, the Yin used sacrificial vessels, and the Zhou used both. Why? The answer: the House of Xia taught with loyalty, so it first used spirit vessels, to take away the filial son's heart. The Yin taught with reverence, so it first used sacrificial vessels, which is the utmost of reverence. The Zhou taught with refinement, so it used both; the Zhou intention reached refinement. Confucius said: "To treat the dead as wholly dead is inhuman and must not be done; to treat the dead as wholly alive is unwise and must not be done." So there is the way of the dead, to take away the filial son's heart, and the way of the living, so that people do not turn away. So bamboo vessels are made but cannot be used, wooden vessels are made but not planed, earthenware is made but not polished, zithers and lutes are strung but not tuned, reed organs are complete but not harmonized, and there are bells and chime stones but no frames to hang them on, showing that the objects are prepared but cannot be used. Confucius said: "Those who make spirit vessels are good; those who make burial figures are inhuman. Clay carriages and straw figures have existed since antiquity. This means that it is so in both past and present."

三綱者何謂也？謂君臣、父子、夫婦也。六紀者，謂諸父、兄弟、族人、諸舅、師長、朋友也。故君為臣綱，夫為妻綱。又曰：“敬諸父兄，六紀道行，諸舅有義，族人有序，昆弟有親，師長有尊，朋友有舊。”何謂綱紀？綱者，張也；紀者，理也。大者為綱，小者為紀，所以張理上下，整齊人道也。人皆懷五常之性，有親愛之心，是以綱紀為化，若羅綱之有紀綱而萬目張也。《詩》云：“我王，綱紀四方。”

What are the three bonds? They are ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife. The six threads are paternal uncles, brothers, clansmen, maternal uncles, teachers and elders, and friends. So the ruler is the bond for the minister and the husband is the bond for the wife. It also says: "Respect paternal uncles and elder brothers, and the Way of the six threads is carried out: maternal uncles have righteousness, clansmen have order, brothers have affection, teachers and elders have honor, and friends have old ties." What are bonds and threads? Gang (the bond) means to stretch; ji (the thread) means to put in order. The large are bonds and the small are threads, used to stretch and order high and low and set human relations in line. All people carry in their hearts the nature of the five constants and have a loving heart, so bonds and threads are used to teach and transform them, like a net with its main cord and threads, so that its ten thousand meshes open out. The Book of Songs says: "[Character lost in transcription] [character lost in transcription] our king, who orders the four quarters with bonds and threads."

君臣，父子，夫婦，六人也，所以稱三綱何？一陰一陽謂之道。陽得陰而成，陰得陽而序，剛柔相配，故六人為三綱。

Ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife make six persons, yet they are called three bonds. Why? One yin and one yang is called the Way. Yang is completed by gaining yin, and yin is put in order by gaining yang; firm and soft are matched, so six persons make three bonds.

三綱法天、地、人，六紀法六合。君臣法天，取象日月屈信歸功天也。父子法地，取象五行轉相生也。夫婦法人，取象人合陰陽有施化端也。六紀者為三綱之紀者也。師長君臣之紀也，以其皆成己也；諸父兄弟父子之紀也，以其有親恩連也；諸舅朋友夫婦之紀也，以其皆有同志為紀助也。

The three bonds take Heaven, Earth and Man as their models, and the six threads take the six directions. Ruler and minister follow Heaven, taking the image of the sun and moon bending and stretching and giving credit for merit to Heaven. Father and son follow Earth, taking the image of the five phases turning and giving birth to one another. Husband and wife follow Man, taking the image of people uniting yin and yang and the beginnings of bestowing and transforming. The six threads are the threads of the three bonds. Teachers and elders are the threads of ruler and minister, because both help one accomplish oneself; paternal uncles and brothers are the threads of father and son, because they are linked by the kindness of kinship; maternal uncles and friends are the threads of husband and wife, because both have like-minded people to serve as helpers to the thread.

君臣者，何謂也？君，群也，下之所歸心；臣者，糹堅也，屬志自堅固。《春秋傳》曰：“君處此，臣請歸也。”

What is meant by ruler and minister? Jun (ruler) means qun (the group), the one to whom those below turn in their hearts; chen (minister) means [character lost in transcription] jian (firm), one whose will is strengthened. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The ruler stays here; may your minister take his leave and return."

父子者，何謂也？父者，矩也，以法度教子；子者，孳孳無已也。故《孝經》曰：“父有爭子，則身不陷於不義。”夫婦者，何謂也？夫者，扶也，以道扶接也；婦者，服也，以禮屈服。《昏禮》曰：“夫親脫婦之纓。”《傳》曰：“夫婦判合也。”朋友者，何謂也？朋者，黨也；友者，有也。《禮記》曰：“同門曰朋，同志曰友。”朋友之交，近則謗其言，遠則不相訕。一人有善，其心好之；一人有惡，其心痛之。貨則通而不計，共憂患而相救。生不屬，死不託。故《論語》曰：“子路云：‘願車馬衣輕裘，與朋友共敝之。’”又曰：“朋友無所歸，生於我乎，死於我乎殯。”朋友之道，親存不得行者二：不得許友以其身，不得專通財之恩。友飢則白之於父兄，父兄許之，乃稱父兄與之，不聽則止。故曰：友飢為之減餐，大寒為之不重裘。故《論語》曰：“有父兄在，如之何其聞斯行之也！”

What is meant by father and son? Fu (father) means ju (the carpenter's square), teaching the son by law and measure; zi (son) means ceaseless diligence. So the Classic of Filial Piety says: "A father who has a remonstrating son will not fall into unrighteousness." What is meant by husband and wife? Fu (husband) means fu (to support), supporting and receiving with the Way; fu (wife) means fu (to submit), submitting according to the rites. The Marriage Rites says: "The husband himself unties the wife's cap tassel." The Commentary says: "Husband and wife are two halves joined." What is meant by friends? Peng is a party; you is to have. The Record of Rites says: "Those of the same school are called peng, those of the same aim are called you." In the friendship of friends, when near they point out each other's faults of speech, and when far they do not slander each other. When one has a good quality, the other is glad at heart; when one has a fault, the other is pained. Goods and wealth flow between them without counting, and they rescue each other in shared hardship. In life they do not leave requests, and in death they do not leave entrustments. So the Analects says: "Zilu said: 'I would share my carriage, horses and light fur coat with friends and be content to wear them out together.'" It also says: "When a friend has no one to turn to, I say: while he lives he is my charge, and when he dies I will bury him." In the way of friendship, there are two things one may not do while one's parents are alive: one may not pledge one's own person to a friend, and one may not act on one's own authority in the kindness of sharing wealth. When a friend is hungry, one tells one's father and elder brothers; if they permit, one says they give it to him, and if they do not listen, one stops. So it is said: when a friend is hungry, one reduces one's own meals for him, and in great cold one does not wear a double fur coat because of it. So the Analects says: "With a father and elder brothers alive, how can one hear a thing and immediately put it into practice!"

男稱兄弟，女稱姊妹何？男女異姓，故別其稱也。何以言之？《禮親屬記》曰：“男子先生稱兄，後生稱弟；女子先生為姊，後生為妹。”父之昆弟不俱謂之世叔，父之女昆弟俱謂之姑，何也？以為諸父曰內，親也，故別稱之也；姑當外適人，疏，故總言之也。至姊妹亦當外適人，所以別諸姊妹何？以為事諸姑禮等，可以外出又同，故稱略也；至姊妹雖欲有略之，姊尊妹卑，其禮異也。《詩》云：“問我諸姑，遂及伯姊。”謂之舅姑者何？舅者，舊也；姑者，故也。舊、故之者，老人之稱也。謂之姊妹何？姊者，諮也；妹者，末也。謂之兄弟何？兄者，況也；況父法也；弟者，悌也，心順行篤也。稱夫之父母謂之舅姑何？尊如父而非父者，舅也；親如母而非母者，姑也。故稱夫之父母為舅姑也。

Men say xiongdi (brothers), women say zimei (sisters). Why? Men and women have different surnames in this sense, so they are called by different names. On what basis is this said? The Record of Kinship in the Rites says: "A man born earlier is called elder brother and born later younger brother; a woman born earlier is elder sister and born later younger sister." The father's brothers are not all called shishu (uncle), yet the father's sisters are all called gu (aunt). Why? It is held that the paternal uncles are spoken of as inner, as kin, so they are called by distinct names; an aunt marries out and is more distant, so they are spoken of collectively. As for sisters, who also marry out, why are they distinguished as elder and younger? It is held that the rites of serving the aunts are equal and their going out is the same, so the terms are simple; but for sisters, even if one wished to be simple, the elder sister is honored and the younger lowly, and the rites differ. The Book of Songs says: "I ask after my aunts, and then my elder sister." Why are they called jiugu (husband's parents)? Jiu is jiu (old); gu is gu (former). Old and former are terms for the aged. Why are sisters called zimei? Zi is zi (to consult); mei is mo (last). Why are brothers called xiongdi? Xiong is kuang (to compare), comparing with the father's model; di is ti (brotherly respect), with a compliant heart and steady conduct. Why is a husband's parents called jiugu? The one honored like a father but not the father is the jiu; the one close like a mother but not the mother is the gu. So the husband's parents are called jiugu.

性情者，何謂也？性者，陽之施；情者，陰之化也。人稟陰陽氣而生，故內懷五性六情。情者，靜也，性者，生也，此人所稟六氣以生者也。故《鉤命決》曰：“情生於陰，欲以時念也；性生於陽，以就理也。陽氣者仁，陰氣者貪，故情有利慾，性有仁也。”

What is meant by nature and feelings? Nature is the bestowal of yang; feelings are the transformation of yin. People are born receiving the qi of yin and yang, so they inwardly hold the five natures and the six feelings. Feelings are stillness and nature is life; these are what people receive of the six qi to live. So the Gouming jue says: "Feelings are born of yin, and desire thinks of things at their season; nature is born of yang, and is used to approach principle. Yang qi is benevolence and yin qi is greed, so feelings have desire for gain and nature has benevolence."

五性者何？謂仁、義、禮、智、信也。仁者，不忍也，施生愛人也；義者，宜也，斷決得中也；禮者，履也，履道成文也；智者，知也，獨見前聞，不惑於事，見微者也；信者，誠也，專一不移也。故人生而應八卦之體，得五氣以為常，仁、義、禮、智、信是也。六情者，何謂也？喜、怒、哀、樂、愛、惡謂六情，所以扶成五性。性所以五，情所以六者何？人本含六律五行氣而生，故內有五藏六府，此情性之所由出入也。《樂動聲儀》曰：“官有六府，人有五藏。”

What are the five natures? They are benevolence, righteousness, ritual propriety, wisdom and good faith. Benevolence is being unable to bear harm, giving life and loving people; righteousness is what is fitting, deciding rightly and hitting the mean; ritual is to tread, treading the Way and bringing it to cultured form; wisdom is knowing, foreseeing alone and hearing ahead, not being confused by affairs and being able to see the subtle; good faith is sincerity, being single-minded and unmoving. So a person, when born, corresponds to the body of the eight trigrams and receives the five qi as constants, which are benevolence, righteousness, ritual, wisdom and good faith. What are the six emotions? Joy, anger, sorrow, pleasure, love and hatred are called the six emotions, and they help to complete the five natures. Why are the natures five and the emotions six? A person is born containing the qi of the six pitch-pipes and the five phases, so within there are five viscera and six receptacles, which are the paths by which emotions and nature come and go. The Music Moving the Sound Ritual says: "The office has six receptacles, and man has five viscera."

五藏者何也？謂肝、心、肺、腎、脾也。肝之為言幹也；肺之為言費也，情動得序；心之為言任也，任於恩也；腎之為言寫也，以竅寫也；脾之為言辨也，所以積精稟氣也。五藏，肝仁，肺義，心禮，腎智，脾信也。

What are the five viscera? They are the liver, heart, lungs, kidneys and spleen. The liver means trunk; the lungs mean expense, where the emotions are stirred and set in order; the heart means to take responsibility, taking responsibility for kindness; the kidneys mean to drain, draining through the orifices; the spleen means to discern, gathering essence and receiving qi. Among the five viscera: the liver is benevolence, the lungs righteousness, the heart ritual, the kidneys wisdom, and the spleen good faith.

肝所以仁者何？肝，木之精也；仁者，好生。東方者陽也，萬物始生，故肝象木，色青而有枝葉。目為之候何？目能出淚而不能內物，木亦能出枝葉不能有所內也。

Why is the liver benevolence? The liver is the essence of wood; benevolence is loving life. The east is yang, where the myriad things begin to grow, so the liver resembles wood, green in color with branches and leaves. Why are the eyes its indicator? The eyes can let tears flow out but cannot take things in, and wood too can grow branches and leaves but cannot take anything in.

肺所以義者何？肺者，金之精；義者，斷決。西方亦金，成萬物也，故肺象金，色白也。鼻為之候何？鼻出入氣，高而有竅，山亦有金石累積，亦有孔穴，出雲布雨以潤天下，雨則雲消，鼻能出納氣也。

Why are the lungs righteousness? The lungs are the essence of metal; righteousness is deciding. The west is also metal and completes the myriad things, so the lungs resemble metal and are white. Why is the nose their indicator? The nose lets breath in and out, is high and has openings; mountains too have metal and stone piled up and have hollows, and put out clouds and spread rain to moisten the world, and when the rain stops the clouds disperse; the nose can put out and take in breath.

心所以為禮何？心，火之精也。南方尊陽在上，卑陰在下，禮有尊卑，故心象火，色赤而銳也，人有道尊，天本在上，故心下銳也。耳為之候何？耳能遍內外、別音語，火照有似於禮，上下分明。

Why is the heart ritual? The heart is the essence of fire. In the south, the honored yang is above and the humble yin is below, and ritual has the high and the low, so the heart resembles fire, red and pointed; a person has the Way of honor, and Heaven is originally above, so the heart is pointed downward. Why are the ears its indicator? The ears reach inside and outside and distinguish sounds and speech; the light of fire resembles ritual, with high and low clearly divided.

腎所以智何？腎者，水之精。智者，進而止無所疑惑。水亦進而不惑，北方水，故腎色黑；水陰，故腎雙。竅為之候何？竅能瀉水，亦能流濡。

Why are the kidneys wisdom? The kidneys are the essence of water. Wisdom is to advance and then stop, without doubt. Water too advances without confusion. The north is water, so the kidneys are black; water is yin, so the kidneys come as a pair. Why are the orifices their indicator? The orifices can drain water, and can also flow and moisten.

脾所以信何？脾者，土之精也。土尚任養萬物為之象，生物無所私，信之至也。故脾象土，色黃也。口為之候何？口能啖嘗，舌能知味，亦能出音聲，吐滋液。

Why is the spleen good faith? The spleen is the essence of earth. Earth values bearing and nourishing the myriad things as its image, and gives life to things without selfishness, which is the height of good faith. So the spleen resembles earth and is yellow. Why is the mouth its indicator? The mouth can taste, the tongue can know flavors, and it can also make sounds and put out moisture.

故《元命苞》曰：“目者肝之使，肝者木之精，蒼龍之位也。鼻者肺之使，肺者金之精，制割立斷。耳者心之候，心者火之精，上為張星。陰者腎之寫，腎者水之精，上為虛危。口者脾之門戶，脾者土之精，上為北斗，主變化者也。”或曰：口者心之候，耳者腎之候。或曰：肝繫於目，肺繫於鼻，心繫於口，脾繫於舌，腎繫於耳。

Hence the Sprouting of Fate says: "The eye is the envoy of the liver; the liver is the essence of wood, the position of the Azure Dragon. The nose is the envoy of the lungs; the lungs are the essence of metal, cutting and deciding at once. The ear is the indicator of the heart; the heart is the essence of fire, above it is the Zhang star. The genitals are the drain of the kidneys; the kidneys are the essence of water, above them are Xu and Wei. The mouth is the gate of the spleen; the spleen is the essence of earth, above it is the Northern Dipper, which governs change." Some say: the mouth is the indicator of the heart, and the ear is the indicator of the kidneys. Some say: the liver is tied to the eyes, the lungs to the nose, the heart to the mouth, the spleen to the tongue, and the kidneys to the ears.

六府者，何謂也？謂大腸、小腸、胃、膀胱、三焦、膽也。府者，謂五藏宮府也。故《禮運》記曰：“六情所以扶成五性也。”

What are the six receptacles? They are the large intestine, small intestine, stomach, bladder, triple burner and gallbladder. A receptacle means the palace of the five viscera. Hence the Record of Ritual Operations says: "The six emotions help to complete the five natures."

胃者，脾之府也，脾主稟氣；胃者，谷之委也，故脾稟氣也。

The stomach is the receptacle of the spleen. The spleen governs receiving qi; the stomach is where grain is stored and accumulated, so the spleen receives qi.

膀胱者，腎之府也。腎者，主瀉，膀胱常能有熱，故先決難也。

The bladder is the receptacle of the kidneys. The kidneys govern draining, and the bladder can always hold heat, so it first decides what is difficult.

三焦者，包絡府也。水谷之道路，氣之所終始也。故上焦若竅，中焦若編，下焦若瀆。

The triple burner is the receptacle of the pericardium. It is the road of water and grain and the beginning and end of qi. So the upper burner is like an orifice, the middle burner is like a braid, and the lower burner is like a ditch.

膽者，肝之府也。肝者，木之精也，主仁。仁者不忍，故以膽斷也，是以肝膽二者必有勇也。肝膽異趣，何以知相為府也？肝者，木之精也，木之為言牧也，人怒無不色青目腋張者，是其效也。

The gallbladder is the receptacle of the liver. The liver is the essence of wood and governs benevolence. The benevolent cannot bear harm, so the gallbladder is used to decide, and therefore those with a liver and gallbladder must have courage. The liver and gallbladder lie in different directions; how do we know they are each other's receptacles? The liver is the essence of wood, and the word for wood means to herd; when a person is angry, his face invariably turns green and his eyes open wide, and this is the proof.

小腸、大腸，心肺之府也，主禮義，禮義者有分理，腸之大小相承受也。腸為心肺主，心為皮體主，故為兩府也。目為心視，口為心談，耳為心聽，鼻為心嗅，是其支體主也。

The small and large intestines are the receptacles of the heart and lungs and govern ritual and righteousness. Ritual and righteousness have divisions and order, and the large and small intestines receive from each other. The intestines serve the heart and lungs as master, and the heart is the master of the limbs, so there are two receptacles. The eyes see for the heart, the mouth speaks for the heart, the ears hear for the heart, and the nose smells for the heart; these are the masters of the limbs.

喜在西方，怒在東方，好在北方，惡在南方，哀在下，樂在上何？以西方萬物之成，故喜；東方萬物之生，故怒；北方陽氣始施，故好；南方陰氣始起，故惡；上多樂，下多哀也。

Joy is in the west, anger in the east, liking in the north, hatred in the south, sorrow below, and pleasure above. Why? In the west the myriad things are completed, so there is joy; in the east the myriad things grow, so there is anger; in the north yang qi begins to act, so there is liking; in the south yin qi begins to rise, so there is hatred; above there is much pleasure, and below there is much sorrow.

魂魄者，何謂也？魂猶亻雲亻雲也，行不休於外也。主於情。魄者，迫然著人主於性也。魂者，芸也，情以除穢；魄者，白也，性以治內。

What is the meaning of hun and po? The hun is like clouds, moving outside without stopping. It governs the emotions. The po is attached to a person as if pressed against him, and governs the nature. The hun is "to weed," using emotion to remove filth; the po is "white," using nature to govern within.

精神者，何謂也？精者，靜也，太陰施化之氣也。象火之化，任生也，神者恍惚，太陰之氣也，間松雲支體，萬化之本也。

What is the meaning of essence and spirit? Essence means stillness, the qi through which the great yin bestows transformation. It resembles the transformation of fire and takes charge of birth. Spirit is hazy and indistinct; it is the qi of the great yin, scattering through clouds of qi and the limbs, and is the root of the ten thousand transformations.

命者，何謂也？人之壽也，天命己使生者也。命有三科以記驗：有壽命以保度，有遭命以遇暴，有隨命以應行。習壽命者，上命也，若言文王受命唯中身，享國五十年。隨命者，隨行為命，若言怠棄三正，天用剿絕其命矣。又欲使民務仁立義，無滔天。滔天則司命舉過，言則用以弊之。遭命者逢世殘賊，若上逢亂君，下必災變暴至，夭絕人命，沙鹿崩於受邑是也。

What is the meaning of fate? It is a person's lifespan, which Heaven's mandate has already given him in life. Fate has three categories by which it is tested: there is the longevity fate, by which life is kept within bounds; there is the encounter fate, by which one meets cruelty; and there is the following fate, by which one responds to one's conduct. One who practices the longevity fate has the highest fate, as with King Wen, who received the mandate only in his middle years and held the state for fifty years. The following fate follows conduct and becomes fate, as with the one who neglected the three correct norms, so that Heaven cut off his fate. Also, people should be made to devote themselves to benevolence and establish righteousness, and not be arrogant toward Heaven. If arrogant toward Heaven, the Director of Fate will lift up his faults, and his words will be used to ruin him. The encounter fate is meeting an age of cruelty above: for example, when there is a disordered ruler above, then below disasters and violent changes must arrive, cutting short human life; the collapse of Shalu at the city where it received its fief is an example.

冉伯牛危言正行而遭惡疾，孔子曰：“命矣夫！斯人也而有斯疾也！夫子過鄭與弟子相失獨立郭門外，或謂子貢曰：東門有一人，其頭似堯，其頸似皋繇，其肩似子產，然自腰以下不及禹三寸，儡儡如喪家之狗，子貢以告孔子，孔子喟然而笑，曰：“形狀未也，如喪家之狗。然哉乎，然哉乎。””

Ran Boniu spoke upright words and acted correctly, yet met with a foul disease, and Confucius said: "It is fate! That such a man should have such a disease!" When the Master passed through Zheng, he was separated from his disciples and stood alone outside the outer wall. Someone said to Zigong: At the east gate there is a man whose head is like Yao's, whose neck is like Gao Yao's, whose shoulders are like Zichan's, but from the waist down he falls short of Yu by three inches, and he looks forlorn like a dog that has lost its home. Zigong told Confucius, and Confucius sighed and laughed, and said: "The description of his form is not complete, but 'like a dog that has lost its home'. Just so, just so."

宗者，何謂也？宗尊也，為先祖主也，宗人之所尊也。《禮》曰：“宗人將有事，族人皆侍。”聖者所以必有宗何也？所以長和睦也。大宗能率小宗；小宗能率群弟，通於有無，所以紀理族人者也。宗其為始祖後者為大宗，此百世之所宗也。宗其為高祖後者，五世而遷者也，高祖遷於上，宗則易於下。”宗其為曾祖後者為曾祖宗，宗其為祖後者為祖宗，宗其為父後者為父宗。以上至高祖皆為小宗，以其轉遷，別於大宗也。別子者，自為其子孫為祖，繼別也，各自為宗。小宗有四，大宗有一，凡有五。宗人之親，所以備矣。諸侯奪宗，明尊者宜之。大夫不得奪宗何？曰：諸侯世世傳子孫，故奪宗；大夫不傳子孫，故不宗也。《喪服經》曰：“大夫為宗子。”不言諸侯為宗子也。

What is the meaning of zong (lineage)? Zong means honored, being the master of the ancestors, whom the lineage members honor. The Rites say: "When the lineage head is about to hold a ceremony, all the clan members attend." Why must the sages have a lineage? To nurture and sustain harmony. The great lineage can lead the lesser lineages; a lesser lineage can lead the brothers, sharing what is present and absent, so as to regulate the clan. The lineage of the descendants of the first ancestor is the great lineage, which is revered for a hundred generations. A lineage of the descendants of the great-great-grandfather moves after five generations: the great-great-grandfather moves up and the lineage below changes accordingly. A lineage of the descendants of the great-grandfather is the great-grandfather lineage, a lineage of the descendants of the grandfather is the grandfather lineage, and a lineage of the descendants of the father is the father lineage. Those from the father up to the great-great-grandfather are all lesser lineages, because they move on in turn and are different from the great lineage. A branch son becomes the ancestor of his own descendants, and the one who continues the branch founds his own lineage. There are four lesser lineages and one great lineage, five in all. The kinship of the lineage members is thereby complete. A lord may override the lineage, showing that the honored one is fitting. Why can a grand master not override the lineage? It is said: lords pass down to their descendants generation after generation, so they override the lineage; grand masters do not pass down to descendants, so they have no lineage. The Classic of Mourning Garments says: "A grand master mourns for the lineage head." It does not say a lord mourns for the lineage head.

族者何也？族者，湊也，聚也，謂恩愛相流湊也。生相親愛，死相哀痛，有會聚之道，故謂之族。《尚書》曰：“以親九族。”

What is a clan? Clan means to converge and to gather, meaning that affection flows together. In life they love one another, in death they mourn one another, and there is a way of gathering, so it is called a clan. The Book of Documents says: "He made the nine clans close."

族所以九何？九之為言究也，親疏恩愛究竟也，謂父族四，母族三，妻族二。父族四者，謂父之姓一族也，父女昆弟適人有子為二族也，身女昆弟適人有子為三族也，身女子適人有子為四族也；母族三者，母之父母一族也，母之昆弟二族也，母昆弟子三族也；母昆弟者男女皆在外親，故合言之。妻族二者，妻之父為一族，妻之母為二族，妻之親略故父母各一族。《禮》曰：“惟氏三族之不虞。”《尚書》曰：“以親九族，義同也。”一說合言九族者，欲明堯時俱三也，禮所以獨父族四何？欲言周承二弊之後，民人皆厚於末，故興禮母族，妻之黨廢，禮母族父之族，足以貶妻族，以附父族也。或言九者，據有交接之恩也。若“邢侯之姊，覃公惟私”也。言四者，據有服耳，不相害所異也。

Why are there nine clans? Nine means the utmost; affection between near and distant reaches its utmost. It means four on the father's side, three on the mother's side and two on the wife's side. The four on the father's side: those of the father's surname are one clan; the father's sisters who marry and have sons are the second clan; one's own sisters who marry and have sons are the third clan; one's own daughters who marry and have sons are the fourth clan. The three on the mother's side: the mother's parents are one clan; the mother's brothers are the second clan; the sons of the mother's brothers are the third clan; the mother's brothers, male and female alike, are outside kin, so they are spoken of together. The two on the wife's side: the wife's father is one clan and the wife's mother is the second clan; the wife's kinship is brief, so father and mother are one clan each. The Rites say: "Only the three clans of the surname are unforeseen." The Book of Documents says: "He made the nine clans close." The meaning is the same. One view is that nine clans are spoken of together, to show that in Yao's time all were three. Why do the Rites have only four on the father's side? It is said that Zhou inherited after two kinds of abuses, when people were all generous toward the minor side, so it raised the rite for the mother's side, while the wife's party was neglected; the rite for the mother's side and the father's side was enough to lower the wife's side and attach it to the father's side. Some say nine, going by those with whom there are bonds of connection, as in "the sister of the Marquis of Xing, the private affair of the Duke of Tan." Saying four goes only by those with mourning obligations, and the two do not hinder what differs.

人所以有姓者何？所以崇恩愛、厚親親、遠禽獸、別婚姻也。故世別類，使生相愛，死相哀，同姓不得相娶，皆為重人倫也。姓生也，人所稟天氣所以生者也。《詩》云：“天生民。”《尚書》曰：“平章百姓。”姓所以有百者何？以為古者聖人吹律定姓，以紀其族。人含五常而生，聲有五音，宮、商、角、徵、羽，轉而相雜，五五二十五，轉生四時，故百而異也。氣殊音悉備，故殊百也。

Why do people have surnames? To honor affection, treat kin generously, keep distance from birds and beasts, and distinguish marriages. So generations are distinguished by kind, so that the living love one another and mourn one another in death, and those of the same surname may not marry; all this values human relations. Xing (surname) means birth; it is the Heavenly qi a person receives by which he is born. The Book of Songs says: "Heaven gave birth to the [a rare character lost in transcription] people." The Book of Documents says: "He made the hundred surnames clear and orderly." Why are there a hundred surnames? It is held that in ancient times the sages blew the pitch-pipes to fix surnames and so regulate the clans. A person is born containing the five constants, and sound has five tones, gong, shang, jue, zhi and yu, which mix in turn; five times five is twenty-five, and they turn through the four seasons, so there are a hundred, all different. The qi differs, and the tones are all complete, so they are distinct to the number of a hundred.

所以有氏者何？所以貴功德，賤伎力。或氏其官，或氏其事。聞其氏即可知，其所以勉人為善也。或氏王父字何？所以別諸侯之後，為興滅國、繼絕世也。諸侯之子稱公子，公子之子稱公孫，公孫之子各以其王父字為氏。故魯有仲孫、季，楚有昭、屈原，齊有高國、崔立氏三，以知其為子孫也。王者之後二稱王子，兄弟立而皆封也。或曰王孫上稱王孫也。堯知命，表稷、契，賜生子、姓，皋陶典刑不表姓，言天任德遠刑。”禹姓姒氏，祖以億生。殷姓子氏，祖以玄鳥子也。周姓姬氏，祖以履大人跡生也。

Why are there clan names (shi)? To honor merit and virtue and despise mere skill and strength. Some take an office as their clan name, some take an affair. On hearing the clan name one can know, and this is used to encourage people to do good. Why do some take the style name of their grandfather as the clan name? To distinguish the descendants of the lords, in order to revive extinguished states and continue broken lines. The son of a lord is called a lord's son, the son of a lord's son is called a lord's grandson, and the sons of a lord's grandson each take the style name of their grandfather as the clan name. So Lu has Zhongsun and Ji, Chu has Zhao and Qu Yuan, and Qi has Gao, Guo and Cui; three kinds of clan names are established so as to know they are descendants. Among the descendants of kings there are two kinds called king's son, when brothers are installed and all enfeoffed. Some say that king's grandson is a title used above. Yao knew the mandate, honored Ji and Xie, and bestowed surnames on them; Gao Yao governed punishments and was not honored with a surname, which means Heaven uses virtue and keeps away from punishment. Yu's surname was Si, and his ancestor was born of a job's tears seed. The Yin surname was Zi, and its ancestor was born of the dark bird. The Zhou surname was Ji, and its ancestor was born from stepping in the footprint of a giant.

人必有名何？所以吐情自紀，尊事人者也。《論語》曰：“名不正，則言不順。”

Why must a person have a name? To express feeling, to regulate oneself, and to serve others with honor. The Analects says: "If names are not correct, speech does not follow."

三月名之何？天道一時，物有變，人生三月，目煦亦能笑，與人相更答，故因其始有知而名之。故《禮服傳》曰：“子生三月，則父名之於祖廟。”於祖廟者，謂子之親廟也，明當為宗廟主也。

Why is a child given a name at three months? The Way of Heaven changes with each season and things transform; when a person is three months old, his eyes are warm and he can smile and respond to people, so he is named when he begins to know. Hence the Mourning Commentary in the Rites says: "When a child is born three months, the father, if living, names him in the ancestral temple." The ancestral temple here means the child's own parent's temple, which shows that he should be the master of the ancestral temple.

一說名之於燕寢。名者，幼小卑賤之稱也，寡略，故於燕寢。《禮?內則》曰：“子生，君沐浴朝服，夫人亦如之。立於阼階西南，世婦抱子，升自西階，君命之士。嫡子執其右手，庶子撫其首。君曰‘欽有帥’，夫人曰‘記有成’。告於四境。”四境者，所以遏絕萌芽，禁備未然。故《曾子問》曰：“世子生，三月以名，告於祖禰。”《內則》記曰：“以名告于山川、社稷、四境，天子太子使士負子於南郊。”

One view is that the naming takes place in the private chamber. A name is a humble and lowly term, simple, so it is done in the private chamber. The Domestic Rules in the Rites says: "When a child is born, the ruler bathes and puts on court dress, and the lady does likewise. He stands at the southwest of the eastern steps, the lesser wife carries the child, ascends by the western steps, and the ruler gives an order to the scholar. The heir son holds his right hand, and a concubine's son has his head stroked. The ruler says, 'May you reverently follow the lead,' and the lady says, 'May you be recorded as accomplished.' It is announced to the four borders." The four borders are announced to cut off sprouts of trouble and guard against what has not yet happened. Hence the Zengzi Asks says: "When an heir is born, at three months he is announced to the ancestors and the late father by name." The Domestic Rules records: "He is announced by name to the mountains and rivers, the altars of soil and grain, and the four borders; the Son of Heaven's crown prince has a scholar carry the child on his back to the southern suburb."

以桑弧蓬矢六射者何也？此男子之事也，故先表其事，然後食其祿。必桑弧何？桑者，相逢接之道也。《保傅》曰：“天子生，舉之以禮，使士負之者何，齊肅端綏，之郊見於天。”《韓詩內傳》曰：“太子生，以桑弧蓬矢六，射上下四方。”明當有事天地四方也。

Why is a mulberry bow shot with six arrows of fleabane? This is the business of a man, so one first marks that business and then he receives his salary. Why must a mulberry bow be used? Mulberry stands for the way of meeting and joining. The Guardian and Tutor says: "When the Son of Heaven is born, he is lifted up according to ritual and a scholar carries him on his back. Why? Solemn and upright with sash tied, he goes to the suburb to be seen by Heaven." The Inner Commentary on the Han Odes says: "When the crown prince is born, a mulberry bow and six fleabane arrows are used to shoot up, down and the four directions." This shows that he should serve Heaven, earth and the four directions.

殷以生日名子何？殷家質，故直以生日名子也。以《尚書》道殷家太甲、帝武丁也。於臣民亦得以生日名子何？亦不止也，以《尚書》道殷臣有巫咸，有祖己也。何以知諸侯不象王者以生日名子也？以太王名甫、王季名歷，此殷之諸侯也。《易》曰“帝乙”，謂成湯。帝乙謂六代孫也。

The Yin named their sons by the birth day. Why? The Yin were plain, so they directly named sons by the day of birth. The Book of Documents praises Taijia and Emperor Wuding of the Yin. Why could their subjects also name their sons by birth day? It was not forbidden, because the Book of Documents praises the Yin ministers Wu Xian and Zu Ji. How do we know that the lords did not imitate the kings in naming sons by birth day? Because Taiwang was named [a rare character lost in transcription] fu, and Wang Ji was named Li; these were lords of Yin. The Book of Changes says "Emperor Yi," and speaks of Cheng Tang. Emperor Yi refers to a descendant six generations on.

湯生於夏世，何以用甲乙為名？曰：湯王后乃更變名，子孫法耳。本名履，故《論語》曰：“予小子履。”履，湯名也。

Tang was born in the Xia age; why was he named with jia or yi? It is said: Tang changed his name only after becoming king, as a rule for his descendants. His original name was Lu, so the Analects says: "I, the small child Lu." Lu was Tang's name.

不以子丑何？曰：甲乙者，幹也；子丑者，枝也。幹為本，本質，故以甲乙為名也。

Why are zi and chou not used? It is said: jia and yi are stems; zi and chou are branches. The stem is the root, the substance, so jia and yi are used for names.

名或兼或單何？示非一也。或聽其聲，以律定其名；或依事、旁其形。故名或兼或單也。依其事者，若后稷是也。棄之，因名為棄也。旁其形者，孔子首類國尼丘山，故名為丘。

Why are some names of two characters and some of one? To show that they are not of one kind. Some are named by listening to the sound and fixing the name by the pitch-pipes; some by an event, or by leaning on his form. So names are sometimes double and sometimes single. One based on an event is like Houji: he was abandoned, and so was named Qi ("abandoned"). One based on form is like Confucius: his head resembled Mount Niqiu, so he was named Qiu.

或旁其名為之字者，聞名即知其字，聞字即知其名，若名賜字，子貢名鯉，字伯魚。

Some make the style name by leaning on the name, so that on hearing the name one knows the style name, and on hearing the style name one knows the name, as with Si (style name Zigong) and Li (style name Boyu).