Bai Hu Tong Yi (白虎通義) · Volume 1

天子者，爵稱也。爵所以稱天子者何？王者父天母地，為天之子也。故《援神契》曰：天覆地載謂之天子，上法斗極。”《鉤命決》曰：“天子，爵稱也。”帝王之德有優劣，所以俱稱天子者何？以其俱命於天，而王治五千裡內也。《尚書》曰：天子作民父母，以為天下王。”何以知帝亦稱天子也，以法天下也？《中候》曰：“天子臣放勳。”《書?逸篇》曰：“厥兆天子爵。”何以“言皇”亦稱天子也？以其言天覆地載俱王天下也。故《易》曰：“伏羲氏之王天下也。”

"Son of Heaven" is a title of rank (jue, rank and enfeoffment title). Why is the ruler called Son of Heaven among the ranks? Because the true king takes Heaven as his father and Earth as his mother, and is the son of Heaven. So the Yuanshen qi says: "Heaven covers and Earth bears, and this is called Son of Heaven, taking above as a model the Northern Dipper and the celestial pole." The Gouming jue says: "The Son of Heaven is a title of rank." The virtue of emperors and kings may be better or worse, yet all are called Son of Heaven; why? Because all receive the mandate from Heaven and rule as king within five thousand li. The Book of Documents says: "The Son of Heaven is the father and mother of the people, and thereby becomes king of the world." How do we know that an emperor is also called Son of Heaven? This is taking Heaven's world as the model. The Zhonghou says: "Fang Xun, the subject of the Son of Heaven." A lost chapter of the Book of Documents says: "That omen is the rank of the Son of Heaven." How do we know that the sovereign is also called Son of Heaven? Because when speaking of Heaven covering and Earth bearing, all rule as king of the world. So the Book of Changes says: "Fuxi ruled as king of the world."

爵有五等，以法五行也；或三等者，法三光也。或法三光，或法五行何？質家者據天，故法三光；文家者據地，故法五行。《含文嘉》曰：“殷爵三等，周爵五等，各有宜也。”《王制》曰：“王者之制祿爵凡五等。”謂公、侯、伯、子、男。此周制也。所以名之為公侯者何。公者通公正無私之意也。侯者，候也。候逆順也。《春秋傳》曰：“王者之後稱公，其餘人皆千乘，象雷震百里所潤同。大國稱侯，小者伯、子、男也。”《王制》曰：“公、侯田方百里，伯七十里，子、男五十里。”伯者百也。子者孳也孳孳無已也。男者，任也。人皆五十里，差次功德，小者不滿為附庸，附庸者，附大國以名通也。百里兩爵、公侯共之，七十里一爵，五十里復兩爵何？公者，加尊二王之後，侯者百里之正爵士，上有可次，下有可第，中央故無二。五十里有兩爵者，所以加勉進人也。小國下爵，猶有尊卑，亦以勸人也。殷爵三等，謂公、侯、伯也，所以合子、男從伯者何？王者受命，改文從質，無虛退人之義，故上就伯也。《尚書》曰：“侯、甸、任、衛，作國伯。”謂殷也。《春秋傳》曰：“合伯、子、男為一爵。”或曰：合從子，貴中也。以《春秋》名鄭忽，忽者，鄭伯也。此未逾年之君當稱子，嫌為改赴。故名之也。地有三等不變，至爵獨變者何？地比爵為質，故不變。為質故不變，王者有改道之文，無改道之實。家所以令公居百里、侯居七十里何也？封賢極於百里。其政也，不可空退人，示優賢之意，欲褒尊而上之。何以知殷家侯人不過七十里者也？曰：士上有三等，有百里、有七十里，有五十里。其地半者其數倍，制地之理體也，多少不相配。

Rank is divided into five grades, modeled on the Five Phases; some divide it into only three grades, modeled on the three lights (sun, moon and stars). Why do some model on the three lights and some on the Five Phases? A dynasty that values plainness (the plain house) relies on Heaven, so it models on the three lights; a dynasty that values refinement (the refined house) relies on Earth, so it models on the Five Phases. The Hanwenjia says: "Yin's ranks were three grades and Zhou's were five grades, each having what suited it." The Royal Regulations in the Book of Rites says: "The true king established salaries and ranks, five grades in all." These are duke, marquis, earl, viscount and baron. This is the Zhou system. Why are they called duke and marquis? "Gong" (duke) means being impartial and without private interest; "hou" (marquis) means to watch, watching for the adversity and compliance of people's hearts. The Spring and Autumn Annals commentary says: "The descendants of a true king are called duke, and the rest are all states of a thousand chariots, as thunder shakes a hundred li and the rain moistens a hundred li. A great state is called marquis, and small ones are called earl, viscount and baron." The Royal Regulations says: "The fields of dukes and marquises are each a hundred li square, earls seventy li, viscounts and barons fifty li." "Bo" (earl) means hundred; "zi" (viscount) means to breed, breeding without ceasing; "nan" (baron) means to bear responsibility. Viscounts and barons both have fifty li, graded by merit and virtue, and smaller ones that do not reach the number are called attached states, attached to great states and reaching upward through the name of a great state. The land of a hundred li has two ranks, shared by duke and marquis; seventy li has only one rank; fifty li again has two ranks; why? "Duke" is an extra honor for the descendants of the two former kings, while marquis is the proper rank and land of a hundred li; above there are grades that can be arranged, and below there are also grades that can be arranged, and just in the middle there is therefore no second kind. Setting two grades of rank at fifty li is to lend an extra push, to encourage people to improve. A small state in the lower ranks still has high and low, which is also used to encourage people. Yin's ranks were three grades, duke, marquis and earl. Why were viscount and baron merged and made to follow earl? When a true king receives the mandate, he changes from refinement to plainness, and there is no principle of lowering people without cause, so they were merged upward into earl. The Book of Documents says: "Hou, dian, ren, wei, make the state earls." This speaks of Yin. The Spring and Autumn commentary says: "Combine earl, viscount and baron into one grade of rank." Another account: after merging they follow "viscount," valuing the middle grade. Because the Spring and Autumn Annals calls Hu of Zheng by name, Hu was in fact the Earl of Zheng; this is a ruler who has not yet completed a year and should be called "viscount," but fearing that it would be mistaken as altering the death announcement, he is called by name. The land remained three grades unchanged, and only the ranks changed; why? Land is plainer than rank, so it does not change. Because it is plain, it does not change: a true king has changes in the ornament of the Way but not in its substance. Why did the house of Yin have dukes occupy a hundred li and marquises seventy li? The enfeoffment of worthies goes at most a hundred li. Arranged this way, one cannot lower people without cause, which shows favor to worthies, to praise them and honor them upward. How do we know the house of Yin did not enfeoff marquises beyond seventy li? Answer: above the land there are three grades, with a hundred li, seventy li and fifty li. When the land is halved, the number of states doubles; this is the form of dividing land, and large and small cannot be mismatched.

公、卿、大夫者，何謂也？內爵稱也。曰公、卿、大夫何？爵者，盡也，各量其職盡其才也。公之為言公正無私也；卿之為言章，善明理也；大夫之為言大，扶進人者也。故《傳》曰：“進賢達能，謂之大夫也。士者事也，任事之稱也。”故《傳》曰：“古今辯然否，謂之士。”《禮》曰：“四十強而士。”不言“爵為士”。至五十爵為大夫何。何以知士非爵？何以知卿為爵也。以大夫知卿亦爵也。何以知公為爵也？《春秋傳》曰：“諸侯四佾，諸公六佾。”合而言之，以是知公卿為爵。內爵所以三等何？亦法三光也。所以不變質文何？內者為本，故不改內也。諸侯所以無公爵者，下天子也。故《王制》曰：“上大夫、下大夫、上士、中士、下士，凡五等。”此謂諸侯臣也。大夫但有上、下何？明卑者多也。爵皆一字也，大夫獨兩字何？《春秋傳》曰：“大夫無遂事。”以為大夫，職在之適四方，受君之法，施之於民，故獨兩字下之。或曰大夫，爵之下者也。稱大夫，明從大夫以上受下施，皆大自著也。天子之士獨稱元士何？士賤不得體君之尊，故加元以別諸侯之士也。《禮經》曰：“士見大夫。”諸侯之士。《王制》曰：“王者八十一元士。”天子爵連言天子，諸侯爵不連言王侯何？即言王侯，以王者同稱，為衰弱亻替差生篡弒，猶不能為天子也，故連言天子也。或曰：王者天爵，王者不能生諸侯，故不言王侯；諸侯人事自著，故不著也。王者太子亦稱士何？舉從下升，以為人無生得貴者，莫不由士起，是以舜時稱為天子，必先試於士禮。《士冠經》曰：“天子之元子士也。”

What are meant by duke, minister and grandee? They are the titles of rank within the court. Why are they called duke, minister and grandee? "Jue" (rank) means to exhaust: each measures his own duty and exhausts his talent. "Duke" means impartial and without private interest; "minister" (qing) means to make clear, skilled at explaining principles clearly; "grandee" (dafu) means great, one who can support and introduce talent. So the Commentary says: "One who advances and recommends the worthy and connects the capable is called a grandee. A scholar (shi) means affair, a name for one who bears responsibility for affairs." So the Commentary says: "One who can distinguish right and wrong of past and present is called a scholar." The Rites say: "At forty, strong, one becomes a scholar." It does not say "holds the rank of scholar." Only at fifty does one hold the rank of grandee; why? How do we know a scholar is not a rank? How do we know a minister is a rank? Since grandee is a rank, we can know a minister is also a rank. How do we know a duke is a rank? The Spring and Autumn commentary says: "The feudal lords used four rows of dancers, and the dukes used six rows." Taken together, from this we know duke and minister are ranks. Why are the inner ranks divided into three grades? This too models the three lights. Why do they not change along with plain and refined? The inner is the root, so the inner does not change. The reason the feudal lords have no "duke" in the sense of a ducal rank is to be lower than the Son of Heaven. So the Royal Regulations says: "Senior grandee, junior grandee, senior scholar, middle scholar and junior scholar, five grades in all." This speaks of the ministers of the feudal lords. Grandees only have senior and junior; why? It shows that the lowlier, the more numerous. Rank titles are all one character, but grandee alone is two characters; why? The Spring and Autumn commentary says: "A grandee has no matter that he can decide on his own and carry through." Because the grandee's duty is to go to the four quarters, receive the ruler's regulations and carry them out among the people, two characters alone are used to show he is below. Another account: grandee is the lowest grade among ranks. Being called grandee shows that from grandees upward, receiving what those above grant and bestowing it below, all greatly display themselves. The scholar of the Son of Heaven alone is called "yuan shi" (prime scholar); why? A scholar is lowly and cannot match the ruler's dignity, so "prime" is added to distinguish him from the scholars of the feudal lords. The Classic of Rites says: "A scholar sees a grandee." That is a scholar of a feudal lord. The Royal Regulations says: "The true king has eighty-one prime scholars." The rank of the Son of Heaven is connected with the words "Son of Heaven," while the rank of the feudal lords is not connected as "kings and marquises"; why? If one said "kings and marquises" directly, it would be mixed with the true king, which would give rise to weakness and usurpation, regicide, and still one could not become Son of Heaven, so "Son of Heaven" is connected. (The base text writes a form with a person radical here, which is a mistaken splitting of the character for "usurp.") Another account: the true king is a rank granted by Heaven, and the true king cannot produce feudal lords, so one does not say "kings and marquises"; the feudal lords' human affairs display themselves, so they are not marked again. The crown prince of a true king is also called a scholar; why? It cites the idea of rising from below, holding that no one is noble from birth, and none fails to start as a scholar, so Shun later became Son of Heaven but was first tested with the rites of a scholar. The Classic of the Scholar's Capping says: "The eldest legitimate son of the Son of Heaven is also a scholar."

婦人無爵何？陰卑無外事，是以有“三從”之義：未嫁從父，既嫁從夫，夫死從子。故夫尊於朝，妻榮於室，隨夫之行，故《禮?郊特牲》曰：“婦人無爵，坐以夫之齒。”《禮》曰：“生無爵，死無諡。”《春秋》錄夫人皆有諡，夫人何以知非爵也？《論語》曰：“邦君之妻，君稱之曰夫人，國人稱之曰君夫人。”即令是爵，君稱之與國人稱之不當異也。庶人，稱匹夫者。匹，偶也。與其妻為偶，陰陽相成之義也，一夫一婦成一室。明君人者，不當使男女有過，時無匹偶也。《論語》曰：“匹夫匹婦之為諒也。”

Women have no rank; why? The yin side is lowly and has no duties at the outer court, so there is the principle of the "three followings": before marriage she follows her father, after marriage her husband, and when her husband dies her son. Therefore the husband is honored in the court, the wife is glorified in the household, following the husband's tracks. So the Jiaotesheng chapter of the Book of Rites says: "Women have no rank; their seating follows their husband's age." The Rites say: "In life she has no rank, and after death she has no posthumous name (the title given after death, decided according to the course of life)." The Spring and Autumn Annals records that ladies of rulers all have posthumous names; how do we know a lady is not a rank? The Analects says: "The wife of the ruler, the ruler calls her 'lady,' and the people of the state call her 'ruler's lady.'" If it were a rank, the ruler's way of addressing her and the people's way should not differ. A commoner is called "pi fu": "pi" means a mate, forming a pair with the wife, which means yin and yang complete each other, and one man and one woman make one household. This shows that one who is a ruler should not let men and women miss their time of marriage and be without mates. The Analects says: "Like a commoner man and woman clinging to small fidelity."

爵人於朝者，示不私人以官，與眾共之義也。封諸侯於廟者，示不自專也，明法度，皆祖之制也，舉事必告焉。《王制》曰：“爵人於朝，與眾共之也。”《詩》云：“王命卿士，南仲太祖。”《禮?祭統》曰：“古者明君爵有德，必於太祖。君降立於阼階南面向，所命北向，央由君右執策命之。”

Conferring rank on someone in the court shows that office is not a private favor, and has the sense of sharing it with the many. Enfeoffing feudal lords in the ancestral temple shows that one does not decide alone, making clear that the regulations are all the institutions established by the ancestors, and any such act must be announced in sacrifice. The Royal Regulations says: "To confer rank in the court is to share it with the many." The Book of Odes says: "The king's appointment of the minister was Nan Zhong, in the Great Ancestor's temple." The Jitong chapter of the Book of Rites says: "In ancient times enlightened rulers conferred rank on those with virtue, always in the Great Ancestor's temple. The ruler descended the steps and stood south of the east steps facing south, the one receiving the appointment faced north, and the recorder, standing at the ruler's right with the writ in hand, announced the appointment." (The base text has a character "yang" here, which is a mistake for "scribe.")

大夫功成未封而死，不得追爵賜之者，以其未當股肱也。《春秋穀梁傳》曰：“追錫死者，非禮也。”《王制》曰：“葬從死者，祭從生者，所以追孝繼養也。”葬從死者何？子無爵父之義也。《禮?中庸》記曰：“父為大夫，子為士，葬以大夫祭以士；子為大夫，父為士，祭以大夫葬以士也。”

A grandee whose achievement was already complete but who died before being enfeoffed may not be posthumously granted rank, because he had not truly served as a limb of the state. The Guliang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals says: "To grant posthumously to the dead is not in accord with ritual." The Royal Regulations says: "Burial follows the status of the dead in life, and sacrifice follows the status of the living, so as to exhaust filial piety and continue to provide for them." Why does burial follow the dead? A son has no principle of raising his father's rank. The Doctrine of the Mean in the Book of Rites records: "If the father is a grandee and the son a scholar, bury with the rites of a grandee and sacrifice with the rites of a scholar; if the son is a grandee and the father a scholar, sacrifice with the rites of a grandee and bury with the rites of a scholar."

父在稱世子何？繫於君也。父沒稱子某者何？屈於屍柩也。既葬稱小子者，即尊之漸也。逾年稱公者，緣民之心不可一日無君也。緣終始之義，一年不可有二君也。故逾年即位，所以系民臣之心也。然後爵者，緣孝子之心未忍安吉。故《春秋》：“魯僖公三十三年十二月乙巳，薨於小寢。文公元年春，王正月，公即位。四月丁巳葬我君僖公。”《韓詩內傳》曰：“諸侯世子三年喪畢，上受爵命於天子。”所以名之為世子何？言欲其世世不絕也。何以知天子子亦稱世子也？《春秋傳》曰：“公會世子於首止。”或曰：天子之子稱太子。《尚書》曰：“太子發升於舟也。”或曰：“諸侯之稱代子。”則傳曰：晉有太子申生，鄭有太子華齊。有太子光。由是觀之，周制太子代子亦不定也。漢制天子稱皇帝。其嫡嗣稱皇太子。諸侯王之嫡稱代子。後代鹹因之。世子三年喪畢，必上受爵命於天子何？明爵土者天子之有也，臣無自爵之義。童子當受父爵命，使大夫就其國命之，明王者不與童子為禮也。以《春秋》魯成公幼少，與諸侯會，公不見之，《經》不以為魯恥，明不與童子為禮也。世子上受爵命，衣士服何？謙不敢自專也。故《詩》曰：“有。”世子始行也。

While the father is alive he is called "heir" (shi zi); why? Because he is attached to the ruler. After the father has died he is called "Zi so-and-so"; why? It shows humbling before the corpse and coffin. After burial he is called "little son," gradually moving toward the honored position. After the new year he is called "duke," following the people's hearts: one cannot be without a ruler for a day. It also follows the principle of ending and beginning: within one year there cannot be two rulers. So he ascends the throne after the new year, in order to hold together the hearts of the ministers and people. Then he is granted the formal rank, following the filial son's heart, not yet willing to rest in an auspicious position. So the Spring and Annals records: "In the thirty-third year of Duke Xi of Lu, in the twelfth month, on yisi, he died in the small bedchamber. In the first year of Duke Wen, in spring, in the first month of the Zhou king, the Duke ascended the throne. In the fourth month, on dingsi, our ruler Duke Xi was buried." The Han Shi Neizhuan says: "When the heir of a feudal lord has completed the three years of mourning, he goes to court to receive the Son of Heaven's rank and command." Why is he called shi zi? It means a hope that it will not be cut off through the generations. How do we know the sons of the Son of Heaven are also called shi zi? The Spring and Autumn commentary says: "The Duke met the heir at Shouzhi." Another account: the sons of the Son of Heaven are called crown prince. The Book of Documents says: "Crown Prince Fa boarded the boat." Another account says: "The feudal lords are called dai zi." But the commentaries say that Jin had Crown Prince Shensheng, Zheng had Crown Prince Hua, and Qi had Crown Prince Guang. From this, in Zhou institutions the titles of crown prince and dai zi were also not fixed. Han institutions: the Son of Heaven is called emperor, his legitimate heir is called crown prince, and the legitimate son of a feudal king is called dai zi, and later ages all followed this. When the heir has completed the three-year mourning, he must go to court to receive the Son of Heaven's rank and command; why? It shows that rank and land belong to the Son of Heaven, and ministers have no principle of conferring rank on themselves. When a child should inherit his father's rank and command, a grandee is sent to his state to announce it, showing that a true king does not perform equal rites with a child. Because in the Spring and Autumn Annals Duke Cheng of Lu was young, and when he met with the feudal lords, Duke Cheng did not come out to meet them, the Classic did not regard this as a disgrace to Lu, showing that equal rites are not performed with a child. The heir goes to court to receive rank and command, yet wears a scholar's clothes; why? Out of humility, not daring to decide alone. So the Book of Odes says: "(Here the base text has a rare character that was lost in transcription.)" This speaks of the heir's first outing.

天子大斂之後稱王者，明士不可一日無君也。故《尚書》曰：“王麻冕黼裳。”此斂之後也。何以知王從死後加王也？以尚書言迎子劉。不言迎王。王者既殯而即繼體之位何？緣民臣之心不可一日無君，故先君不可得見則後君繼體矣。《尚書》曰：“再拜興對，乃受銅。”明為繼體君也。緣始終之義，一年不可有二君也。故《尚書》曰：“王釋冕喪服。”吉冕受銅稱王，以接諸侯，明己繼體為君也。釋冕藏銅，反喪，明未稱王以統事也。不曠年無君，故逾年乃即位改元，名元年，年以紀事，君名其事矣，而未發號令也。何以言逾年即位謂改元位？《春秋傳》曰：“以諸侯逾年即位，亦知，天子逾年即位也。”《春秋》曰：“元年春王正月，公即位。”改元位也。王者改元年，即事天地；諸侯改元，即事社稷。《王制》曰：“夫喪三年不祭，唯祭天地社稷，為越紼而行事。”《春秋傳》曰“天子三年然後稱王”者，謂稱王統事發號令也。《尚書》曰“高宗諒陰三年”是也。《論語》曰：“君薨，百官總己聽於冢宰三年。”緣孝子之心，則三年不當也，故三年除喪，乃即位統事。即位踐阼為主，南面朝臣下稱王，以發號令也。故天子、諸侯凡三年即位，終始之義乃備，所以諒陰三年，卒孝子之道。故《論語》曰：“古之人皆然，君薨，百官總己聽於冢宰三年。”所以聽於冢宰三年者何？以為冢宰職在制國之用，是以由之也，故《王制》曰：“大冢宰制國用。”所以名之為冢宰何？冢者，大也；宰者，制也；大制事也。故《王度記》曰：“天子冢宰一人，爵祿如天子之大夫。”或曰冢宰視卿，《周官》所云也。

After the great shrouding, the Son of Heaven is called king, showing that the scholars and people cannot be without a ruler for a day. So the Book of Documents says: "The king wore a hemp cap and robe with axe patterns." This is after the great shrouding. How do we know that "king" is added after a person's death? Because the Book of Documents says "welcome Zi Liu," not "welcome the king." After the true king has been laid in state, he ascends to the position of succeeding to the line; why? It follows the hearts of ministers and people, that they cannot be without a ruler for a day; the former ruler can no longer be seen, so the later ruler succeeds to the line. The Book of Documents says: "Bowing twice, he rose and answered, and then received the tong (tong refers to the bronze token of trust)." This shows that he is already the ruler who has succeeded. It follows the principle of ending and beginning: within one year there cannot be two rulers. So the Book of Documents says: "The king took off the cap and changed into mourning clothes." Wearing the auspicious cap, receiving the tong and being called king, and using it to receive the feudal lords, shows that he is already the ruler who has succeeded; taking off the cap, putting away the tong and returning to the mourning, shows that he has not yet been called king to manage government. Also the year cannot be left empty without a ruler, so he ascends the throne after the new year and changes the era name, calling it the first year; a year is used to record events, and the ruler fixes the names of these matters but has not yet issued orders. How do we say that ascending the throne after the new year is the position of changing the era? The Spring and Autumn commentary says: "From the feudal lords ascending after the new year, we can also know that the Son of Heaven ascends after the new year." The Spring and Autumn Annals says: "In the first year, in spring, in the first month of the king, the Duke ascended the throne." This is the position of changing the era. When a true king changes the era, he serves Heaven and Earth; when a feudal lord changes the era, he serves the altars of earth and grain. The Royal Regulations says: "In the three years of mourning, one does not sacrifice, except for sacrifices to Heaven and Earth and the altars of earth and grain, which one does by stepping over the mourning cord." The Spring and Autumn commentary says "the Son of Heaven is called king only after three years," meaning called king to manage government and issue orders. The Book of Documents says "Gaozong kept silent in mourning for three years," which is this. The Analects says: "When the ruler dies, the hundred officials each manage their own duties and take orders from the prime minister for three years." Following the filial son's heart, in these three years he should not govern the state, so after the three years' mourning is over, he ascends the throne and takes up affairs. In ascending the throne, stepping up the east steps as host, facing south to receive ministers' audience and being called king, he uses it to issue orders. So the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords alike truly ascend the throne only when three years are full, and so the principle of ending and beginning is complete; therefore silence in mourning for three years completes the filial son's way. So the Analects says: "The ancients were all like this: when the ruler dies, the hundred officials each manage their own duties and take orders from the prime minister for three years." Why take orders from the prime minister for three years? Because the prime minister's duty is to set the state's expenditures, so he presides. The Royal Regulations says: "The Grand Prime Minister sets the state's expenditures." Why is he called prime minister (zhong zai)? "Zhong" means great, and "zai" means to regulate, meaning to regulate government affairs on a large scale. So the Wangdu ji says: "The Son of Heaven's prime minister is one person, with salary and rank like the Son of Heaven's grandees." Another account: the prime minister is comparable to a minister, as stated in the Zhou Offices.

帝王者何？號也。號者，功之表也，所以表功明德，號令臣下者也。德合天地者稱帝，仁義合者稱王，別優劣也。《禮記?諡法》曰：“德象天地稱帝，仁義所在稱王。”帝者天號，王者五行之稱也。皇者何謂也？亦號也。皇，君也，美也，大也。天之總，美大稱也，時質，故總之也。號之為皇者，煌煌人莫違也。煩一夫、擾一士以勞天下不為皇也，不擾匹夫匹婦故為皇。故黃金棄于山，珠玉捐於淵，巖居穴處，衣皮毛，飲泉液，吮露英，虛無寥廓，與天地通靈也。號言為帝者何？帝者，諦也，象可承也；王者，往也，天下所歸往。《鉤命決》曰：“三皇步，五帝趨，三王馳，五伯騖。”

What are emperors and kings? They are hao (titles that proclaim merit and virtue, used to command ministers). A title is a sign of achievement, used to commend merit, make virtue clear and command ministers. One whose virtue matches heaven and earth is called di (emperor), one whose humaneness and righteousness match is called wang (king), to distinguish the better from the worse. The posthumous-name rules recorded in the Book of Rites say: "One whose virtue is like heaven and earth is called di; one in whom humaneness and righteousness reside is called wang." Di is the name of Heaven, and wang is the designation in the sense of the Five Phases. What is huang (sovereign)? It is also a title. "Huang" means ruler, means beautiful, means great; it is a general and beautiful, great title for Heaven; at that time customs were plain, so they were called by this comprehensive name. Being called huang means brilliance and splendor, such that no one dares to disobey. To trouble a single commoner or disturb a single scholar so as to burden the world means one cannot be called huang; not disturbing commoner men and women is why one is huang. Therefore gold was left in the mountains and pearls and jade thrown into the depths, they lived in caves, wore furs, drank from springs and sipped the blossoms of dew, empty and vast, in communion with heaven and earth. Why is one called di? "Di" means to examine carefully, like something that can be received and passed on; "wang" means to go toward, the one the world goes toward. The Gouming jue says: "The Three Sovereigns walked slowly, the Five Emperors walked with small quick steps, the Three Kings ran, and the Five Hegemons sprinted."

或稱天子，或稱帝王何？以為接上稱天子者，明以爵事天也；接下稱帝王者，得號天下至尊言稱，以號令臣下也。故《尚書》曰：“‘諮四嶽’，曰：‘裕汝眾’。”或有一人。王者自謂一人者，謙也，欲言巳材能當一人耳。故《論語》曰：“百姓有過，在予一人。”臣謂之一人何？亦所以尊王者也。以天下之大、四海之內，所共尊者一人耳。故《尚書》曰：“不施予一人。”或稱朕何？亦王者之謙也。朕，我也。或稱予者，予亦我也。不以尊稱自也，但自我皆謙。

Sometimes the ruler is called Son of Heaven and sometimes emperor or king; why? In dealings with those above he is called Son of Heaven, showing that he serves Heaven with his rank; in dealings with those below he is called emperor or king, taking the title of supreme honor for commanding the world, used to command ministers. So the Book of Documents says: "I consult the Four Peaks," and also says: "I treat you all with generosity." There are also those who call themselves "the One Man." A true king calling himself the One Man is humility, wishing to say that his ability amounts to only one person. So the Analects says: "If the people have faults, the responsibility is on me, the One Man." Ministers call him "the One Man"; why? This too is to honor the true king. Within the greatness of the world and the four seas, only one person is revered in common. So the Book of Documents says: "Do not add it to me, the One Man." Sometimes he says "zhen," which is also the true king's humble term. "Zhen" means I. Sometimes he says "yu," and "yu" also means I. Not using an honorific to refer to himself but only himself is always humility.

或稱君子何？道德之稱也。君之為言群也；子者，丈夫之通稱也。故《孝經》曰：“君子之教以孝也，下言敬天下之為人父者也。”何以言知其通稱也，以天子至於民。故《詩》云：“凱弟君子，民之父母。”《論語》云：“君子哉若人。”此謂弟子。弟子者，民也。

Sometimes the ruler is called junzi (gentleman); why? This is a title of moral character. "Jun" means able to bring people together; "zi" is the general term for an adult man. So the Classic of Filial Piety says: "The gentleman teaches by filial piety," and goes on to say "respecting all the world's fathers." How do we know this is a general term? From the Son of Heaven down to the people it is used so. So the Book of Odes says: "The gentle and easygoing gentleman is the father and mother of the people." The Analects says: "This man is truly a gentleman." This speaks of a disciple. A disciple means the people.

三皇者，何謂也？謂伏羲、神農、燧人也。或曰伏羲、神農、祝融也。《禮》曰：“伏羲、神農、祝融，三皇也。”謂之伏羲者何。古之時未有三綱、六紀，民人但知其母，不知其父，能覆前而不能覆後，臥之訁去訁去，起之吁吁，飢即求食，飽即棄餘，茹毛飲血而衣皮葦。於是伏羲仰觀象於天，俯察法於地，因夫婦正五行，始定人道，畫八卦以治下。治下伏而化之，故謂之伏羲也。謂之神農何？古之人民，皆食禽獸肉，至於神農，人民眾多，禽獸不足。於是神農因天之時，分地之利，制耒耜，教民農作。神而化之，使民宜之，故謂之神農也。謂之燧人何？鑽木燧取火，教民熟食，養人利性，避臭去毒，謂之燧人也。謂之祝融何？祝者，屬也；融者，續也。言能屬續三皇之道而行之，故謂祝融也。

Who are the Three Sovereigns? They are Fuxi, Shennong and Suiren. Another view: Fuxi, Shennong and Zhurong. The Rites say: "Fuxi, Shennong and Zhurong are the Three Sovereigns." Why is he called Fuxi? In high antiquity there were not yet the Three Bonds and the Six Relations, and people knew only their mothers and did not know their fathers; they could look to what was before them and not to what was behind; when they lay down they gaped and breathed out, and when they rose they panted (the base text has a split-up form of the character "qu" here, an error); when hungry they sought food, and when full they threw away the rest, eating hair and drinking blood, and wearing animal skins and reeds. Then Fuxi looked up and observed the images in the heavens, looked down and took models from the earth, and on the basis of husband and wife set the Five Phases in order, began to establish the human way, and drew the eight trigrams to govern the people below. The people believed and were transformed, so he is called Fuxi. Why is he called Shennong? In high antiquity people all ate the flesh of birds and beasts; by the time of Shennong the people had multiplied and birds and beasts were not enough. So Shennong followed the seasons of Heaven, divided the advantages of the earth, made the plow, and taught the people to farm. He transformed them in a divine way so that each of the people got what suited them, and so he is called Shennong. Why is he called Suiren? He drilled wood to get fire and taught the people to eat cooked food, nurturing people and easing their temperaments, avoiding rankness and removing poison, and so he is called Suiren. Why is he called Zhurong? "Zhu" means to link, and "rong" means to continue. It says that he could link and continue the Way of the Three Sovereigns and put it into practice, and so he is called Zhurong.

五帝者，何謂也？《禮》曰：黃帝、顓頊、帝嚳、帝堯、帝舜，五帝也。《易》曰：“黃帝、堯舜、氏作。”《書》曰：“帝堯、帝舜。”黃者中和之色，自然之姓，萬世不易。黃帝始作制度，得其中和，萬世常存，故稱黃帝也。謂之顓頊何？顓者，專也；頊者，正也；能專正天人之道，故謂之顓頊也。謂之帝嚳者何也？嚳者，極也，言其能施行窮極道德也。謂之堯者何？堯猶也，至高之貌，清妙高遠，優遊博衍，眾聖之主，百王之長也。謂之舜者何？舜猶舛舛也，言能推信堯道而行之。

Who are the Five Emperors? The Rites say: the Yellow Emperor, Zhuanxu, Emperor Ku, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun are the Five Emperors. The Changes say: "The Yellow Emperor, Yao and Shun arose." The Documents say: "Emperor Yao, Emperor Shun." Yellow is the color of the middle and harmony, a natural surname that does not change for ten thousand generations. The Yellow Emperor first established institutions, attained the middle and harmony within them, which endure for ten thousand generations, and so he is called the Yellow Emperor. Why is he called Zhuanxu? "Zhuan" means single-minded and "xu" means upright; he could focus on and set right the Way of Heaven and man, and so he is called Zhuanxu. And why Emperor Ku? "Ku" means the utmost, saying that he could carry out virtue to its utmost. And why Yao? Yao is like (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription), the appearance of the utmost height, clear, subtle, lofty and distant, calm and broad, the covenant leader of the sages and the chief of the hundred kings. And why Shun? Shun is like "chuan chuan," saying he could extend, keep faith with and carry out Yao's Way.

三王者，何謂也？夏、殷、周也。故《禮?士冠經》曰：“周弁、殷鼾、夏收，三王共皮弁也。”所以有夏殷周號何，以為王者受命，必立天下之美號以表功自克，明易姓為子孫制也。夏、殷、周者，有天下之大號也。百王同天下，無以相別，改制天子之大禮號，以自別於前，所以表著已之功業也。必改號者，所以明天命巳著，欲顯揚巳於天下也。己復襲先王之號與繼體守文之君，無以異也，不顯不明，非天意也。故受命王者必擇天下美號，表著已之功業，明當致施是也。所以預自表克於前也。

Who are the Three Kings? Xia, Yin and Zhou. So the Rites, in the Capping of Scholars, say: "The Zhou used the bian cap, the Yin used the xu cap, the Xia used the shou cap, and the Three Kings all shared the leather cap." (The base text has "han" for "xu," an error.) Why are there these designations Xia, Yin and Zhou? Because when a king receives the mandate, he must establish a fine name for the world to display his achievements and discipline himself, to show that he has changed the surname and set institutions for his descendants. Xia, Yin and Zhou are the great names for holding the world. A hundred kings are together in this world, and there is no way to tell them apart, so they change and fix the great ritual name of the Son of Heaven in order to distinguish themselves from earlier ages, and thereby display their own achievements. A change of name is necessary to show that the mandate of Heaven is already manifest and that one is to be made known in the world. If one again took over the name of a former king, there would be no difference from a ruler who continues the line and keeps the statutes, and it would be neither conspicuous nor clear, and not the will of Heaven. So a king who receives the mandate must choose a fine name of the world to display his achievements and show that he ought to act thus. This is displaying oneself beforehand and restraining oneself against earlier ages.

帝王者居天下之尊號也。所以差優號令臣下。諡者行之跡也。所以別於後代。著善惡。重無窮，無自推觀施後世皆以勸善著戒惡。明不勉也，不以姓為號何？姓者，一定之稱也，尊卑所同也。諸侯各稱一國之號而有百姓矣，天子至尊，即備有天下之號，而兼萬國矣。夏者，大也，明當守持大道。殷者，中也，明當為中和之道也。聞也，見也，謂當道著見中和之為也。周者，至也，密也，道德周密，無所不至也。何以知即政立號也？《詩》云：“命此文王，於周於京。”此改號為周，易邑為京也。《春秋傳》曰：“王者受命而王，必擇天下之美號以自稱也。”五帝無有天下之號何？五帝德大能禪，以民為子，成於天下，無為立號也。或曰：唐、虞皆號也。唐，蕩蕩也，蕩蕩者，道德至大之貌也。虞者，樂也，言天下有道，人皆樂也。故《論語》曰：“唐、虞之際。”帝嚳有天下，號高辛，顓頊有天下。號曰高陽，黃帝有天號曰自然者，獨宏大道德也。高陽者，陽猶明也，道德高明也。高辛者，道德大信也。

"Emperor" and "king" are titles of the one who dwells in the highest honor of the world, used to distinguish the better from the worse and to command ministers. The posthumous name is a trace of one's conduct, used to distinguish him from later ages, to show good and evil, and to be serious without end, so that later people can look back on it and apply it in later ages, all to encourage good and to make evil plain as a warning. It shows that one cannot but strive. Why is the surname not used as a title? The surname is a fixed designation, shared by high and low. The feudal lords each call themselves by the title of one state, and so there are the hundred surnames; the Son of Heaven is of the highest honor, and so possesses the title of the whole world, holding all the ten thousand states. Xia means great, showing that one should keep the great Way. Yin means the middle, showing that one should practice the Way of the middle and harmony; it also means to hear and to see, saying that the actions of the middle and harmony should be made conspicuous and visible. Zhou means to reach, to be thorough, with virtue complete and reaching everywhere. How do we know that on taking office one establishes a title? The Odes say: "Heaven's mandate on this King Wen, in Zhou, in the capital." This is changing the title to Zhou and the city to Jing. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "A king who receives the mandate and calls himself king must choose a fine name of the world to call himself." The Five Emperors had no title of the world; why? The Five Emperors' virtue was great and they could abdicate, treating the people as sons and accomplishing things in the world, so there was no need to set up a separate title. Another view: Tang and Yu were both titles. Tang means vast, and vast is the look of utmost greatness of virtue. Yu means joy, saying that when the world has the Way, everyone is at ease and joyful. So the Analects says: "the age of Tang and Yu." Emperor Ku held the world with the title Gaoxin; Zhuanxu held the world with the title Gaoyang; the Yellow Emperor held the world with the title Ziran (natural), singularly expansive in virtue. Gaoyang: "yang" means bright, and the virtue is lofty and bright. Gaoxin: the virtue is of great good faith.

五霸者，何謂也？昆吾氏、大彭氏、豕韋氏、齊桓公、晉文公也。昔三王之道衰，而五霸存其政，率諸侯朝天子，正天下之化，興復中國，攘除夷狄，故謂之霸也。昔昆吾氏，霸於夏者也；大彭氏、豕韋氏，霸於殷者也；齊桓、晉文，霸於周者也。或曰：五霸，謂齊桓公、晉文公、秦穆公、楚莊王、吳王闔閭也。霸者，伯也，行方伯之職，會諸侯，朝天子，不失人臣之義，故聖人與之。非明王之張法。霸猶迫也，把也，迫脅諸侯，把持其政。《論語》曰：“管仲相桓公，霸諸侯。”《春秋》曰：“公朝於王所。”於是時晉文之霸。《尚書》曰：“邦之榮懷，亦尚一人之慶。”知秦穆之霸也。楚勝鄭而不告，從而攻之，又令還師，而佚晉寇。圍宋，宋因而與之平，引師而去。知楚莊之霸也。蔡侯無罪而拘於楚，吳有憂中國心，興師伐楚，諸侯莫敢不至。知吳之霸也。或曰：五霸，謂齊桓公、晉文公、秦穆公、宋襄公、楚莊王也。宋襄伐齊，亂齊桓公，不擒二毛，不鼓不成烈。《春秋傳》曰：“雖文王之戰不是過。”知其霸也。

Who are the Five Hegemons? The house of Kunwu, the house of Dapeng, the house of Shiwei, Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin. In the past, when the Way of the Three Kings had declined, the Five Hegemons preserved that system of government and teaching, led the feudal lords to court the Son of Heaven, set right the teaching of the world, revived the Central States, and drove out the barbarians, so they are called hegemons. In the past the house of Kunwu were hegemons under Xia; the houses of Dapeng and Shiwei were hegemons under Yin; Huan of Qi and Wen of Jin were hegemons under Zhou. Another view: the Five Hegemons were Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, Duke Mu of Qin, King Zhuang of Chu and King Helu of Wu. "Ba" is "bo" (chief), exercising the duty of a regional chief, assembling the feudal lords and paying court to the Son of Heaven without losing the duty of a minister, so the sages approved. But this is not the regular law laid down by clear-sighted kings. "Ba" is also like "po" (to compel) and "ba" (to hold): compelling the feudal lords and holding their government. The Analects says: "Guan Zhong assisted Duke Huan and made him hegemon of the feudal lords." The Spring and Autumn says: "The duke paid court at the king's place." At that time it was just when Wen of Jin was hegemon. The Documents say: "The glory and peace of the states still depend on the good fortune of one man." From this we know the hegemony of Mu of Qin. When Chu defeated Zheng but did not pursue it hard, then went to attack again, and also ordered the army to return, letting off the troops of Jin; when it besieged Song, Song made peace with it for this reason, and he led his army away. From this we know the hegemony of Zhuang of Chu. The Marquis of Cai was without fault but was detained by Chu, and Wu had a heart concerned for the Central Plain and raised troops to attack Chu, and none of the feudal lords dared not come. From this we know the hegemony of Wu. There is yet another view: the Five Hegemons were Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, Duke Mu of Qin, Duke Xiang of Song and King Zhuang of Chu. Duke Xiang of Song attacked Qi in the disorder after the death of Duke Huan of Qi; he did not capture the grey-haired and did not beat the drums to attack an army not yet drawn up in ranks. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Even King Wen's battles were no more than this." From this we know his hegemony.

伯、子、男臣子於其國中，褒其君為公。王者臣子獨不得襄其君謂之為帝何？以為諸侯有會聚之事，相朝聘之道。或稱公而尊，或稱伯、子、男而卑。為交接之時，不私其臣子之義，心俱欲尊其君父，故皆令臣子得稱其君為公也。帝、王異時，無會同之義，故無為同也。何以諸侯德公齊侯桓公。《尚書》曰：“公曰：‘嗟。’”秦伯也。《詩》云：“覃公惟私。”覃子也。《春秋》曰：“葬皆繆公”，許男也。《禮?大射經》曰：“則擇獲。”大射者，諸侯之禮也，伯、子、男皆在也。

Subjects of earls, viscounts and barons, within their own states, call their lords "duke" in praise. Only a king's subjects cannot call their own lord "emperor" in praise; why? Because feudal lords have gatherings and the principle of visiting one another, and some are called duke and honored while some are called earl, viscount or baron and are lower. At the time of their dealings, the ministers' intent in honoring their lords is not treated as a private duty, and in their hearts all want to honor their own lord and father, so they all let their ministers call their own lords "duke." The emperor and the king are of different ages and have no principle of meeting together, so there is no need to seek sameness. Among feudal lords called duke, for example, Duke Huan, Marquis of Qi. The Documents say: "The duke said: 'Alas.'" That was the Earl of Qin. The Odes say: "The Duke of Tan only attends to his private house." Tan was a viscount. The Spring and Autumn says: "buried Duke Mu of Xu," and Xu was a baron. The Rites, in the Great Archery Classic, say: "then select the one who retrieves." Great archery is a ritual of feudal lords, and earls, viscounts and barons are all included in it.

諡者何也？諡之為言引也，引烈行之跡也。所以進勸成德，使上務節也。故《禮?特牲》曰：“古者生無爵，死無諡。”此言生有爵，死當有諡也。死乃諡之何？言人行終始不能若一，故據其終始，後可知也。士冠經曰：“死而諡之。今也所以臨葬而諡之何？因眾會，欲顯揚之也。故《春秋》曰：“公之喪自乾侯。”昭公死於晉乾侯之地，數月歸，至急，當未有諡也。《春秋》曰：“丁巳葬，戊午日下側，乃克葬。”明祖載而有諡也。

What is a posthumous name? "Shi" means to draw out, to draw out traces of resolute conduct, to advance, encourage and complete virtue, and to make those above concentrate on integrity. So the Rites, in the Sacrifice of a Single Animal, say: "In ancient times, there was no rank while alive and no posthumous name after death." This means: if one had rank while alive, one should have a posthumous name after death. Why wait until death to give a name? It says that a person's conduct cannot be consistent from beginning to end, so it is on the basis of his end and beginning that it can be known afterward. The Capping of Scholars classic says: "Only after death is he given a name." Now why is the name given only at the time of burial? Because the multitude gather and one makes use of the occasion to display him. So the Spring and Autumn says: "The duke's funeral returned from Qianhou." Duke Zhao died at Qianhou in Jin, and returned after several months, the matter being urgent, and at the time there was not yet a posthumous name. The Spring and Autumn says: "He was buried on dingsi, and on wuwu in the afternoon the burial was completed." This shows that at the ancestral rite and the carrying of the coffin there already was a posthumous name.

黃帝，先黃后帝何？古者順死生之稱。各持行合而言之。美者在上，黃帝始製法度。得道之中，萬世不易。名黃自然也，後世雖聖，莫能與同也。後世得與天同，亦得稱帝，不能立製作之時，故不得復黃也。諡，或一言，或兩言何？文者，以一言為諡；質者，以兩言為諡。故尚書曰：高宗殷宗也。湯死後稱成湯，以兩言為諡也。號無質文、諡有質文何？號者，始也，為本，故不可變也。周巳後用意，尤文以為本。生時號令善，故有善諡，故舍文武王也。合言之，則上其諡，明別善惡，所以勸人為善、戒人為惡也。

Why does the Yellow Emperor say "Huang" first and "Di" second? In ancient times, following the names of death and life, each was joined together on the basis of his conduct, with the fine placed above. The Yellow Emperor first established the laws and obtained the middle of the Way, unchanged for ten thousand generations. The name "Huang" is so of itself, and even later sages cannot be the same as him. Later ones who can be the same as Heaven may also be called "Di," but cannot be in an age of founding and making, so they may no longer be called "Huang." A posthumous name sometimes has one character and sometimes two; why? An age of refinement used one character for the posthumous name, and an age of substance used two characters. So the Documents say Gaozong, who was an ancestor of Yin; after Tang died he was called Cheng Tang, using two characters as his posthumous name. Titles have no distinction between substance and refinement, yet posthumous names do; why? The title is the beginning and the root, so it cannot be changed. After the Zhou, with more thought, especially taking refinement as the root. When living, one's orders were good, so there are good posthumous names, and so they discard the combined names like King Wen and King Wu. When spoken together, the posthumous name is placed above, to distinguish good and bad, to encourage good and warn against evil.

帝者，天號也，以為堯猶諡，顧上世質直，死後以其名為號耳。所以諡之為堯何？為諡有七十二品。《禮?記諡法》曰：“翼善傳聖諡曰堯，仁聖盛明諡曰舜，慈惠愛民諡曰文，強理直諡曰武。”

"Di" is the name of Heaven. As for Yao, it is also like a posthumous name; but in the simple earlier age, after death they used his name as the title. Why was he given the posthumous name Yao? Because posthumous names have seventy-two grades. The rules for posthumous names recorded in the Book of Rites say: "One who assists the good Way and passes on sage virtue is called Yao; one who is benevolent, sage and brilliant is called Shun; one who is kind and loving to the people is called Wen; one who is strong, resolute and upright is called Wu."

天子崩，臣下至南郊諡之者何？以為人臣之義，莫不欲褒大其君，掩惡揚善者也。故之南郊，明不得欺天也。故《曾子問》：“孔子曰：天子崩，臣下之南郊，告諡之。”

When the Son of Heaven dies, the ministers go to the southern suburb to present the posthumous name; why? Because in the duty of a minister there is none who does not want to praise and magnify the ruler, to hide his faults and show his virtue. So they go to the southern suburb to show that Heaven cannot be deceived. So Confucius says in Zengzi Asks: "When the Son of Heaven dies, the ministers go to the southern suburb, announce it and present the posthumous name."

諸侯薨，世子赴告天子，天子遣大夫會其葬而諡之何？幼不誄長，賤不誄貴，諸侯相誄，非禮也。臣當受諡於君也。

When a feudal lord dies, the heir goes to announce it to the Son of Heaven, and the Son of Heaven sends a grand master to attend the burial and give him a posthumous name; why? The young do not write eulogies for the old, and the lowly do not write eulogies for the honored; for feudal lords to write eulogies for one another is not in accord with ritual. A minister should receive his posthumous name from his lord.

卿大夫老歸死有諡何？諡者，別尊卑、彰有德也。卿大夫歸，無過，猶有祿位，故有諡也。

A minister or grand master who retires home in old age has a posthumous name after death; why? The posthumous name is used to distinguish high and low and to make virtue conspicuous. When a minister or grand master retires, being without fault and still having his salary and position, he has a posthumous name.

夫人無諡者何？無爵故無諡。或曰：夫人有諡。夫人一國之母，修閨門之內，群下亦化之，故設諡以彰其善惡。《春秋傳》曰：“葬宗恭姬。”《傳》曰：“稱諡何？賢也。”《傳》曰：“哀姜者何？莊公夫人也。”卿大夫妻無諡何？賤也。八妾所以無諡何？卑賤無所能務，猶士卑小，不得有諡也。太子夫人無諡何？本婦人隨夫，太子無諡，其夫人不得有諡也。天子太子元士也。士無諡，知太子亦無諡也。附庸所以無諡何？卑小無爵也。《王制》曰：“爵祿凡五等。”附庸本非爵也。

A wife has no posthumous name; why? She has no rank, so she has no posthumous name. Another view: a wife does have a posthumous name. A wife is the mother of a state, who tends to the inner chambers, and those below her are transformed, so a posthumous name is set up to make her good and bad conduct plain. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Buried Gong Ji." The Commentary says: "Why is the posthumous name used? Because she was worthy." The Commentary says: "Who was Ai Jiang? She was Duke Zhuang's wife." The wives of ministers and grand masters have no posthumous name; why? Because they are lowly. The eight concubines have no posthumous name because they are lowly and have nothing to devote themselves to, just as scholars are low and small and may not have posthumous names. The wife of a crown prince has no posthumous name; why? A woman follows her husband, and since the crown prince has no posthumous name, his wife may not have one. The Son of Heaven's crown prince is a primary scholar. Scholars have no posthumous name, from which we know the crown prince has none either. Dependent states have no posthumous name because they are low and small and have no rank. The Royal Regulations say: "Ranks and salaries are five grades in all." Dependent states are not originally a rank.

後夫人於何所諡之？以為於朝廷。朝廷本所以治政之處，臣子共審諡，白之於君，然後加之。婦人大夫，故但白君而已。何以知不之南郊也？婦人本無外事，何為於郊也？《禮?曾子問》曰：“唯天子稱天以誅之。”唯者，獨也，明天子獨於南郊耳。

Where are the posthumous names of the queen and wives presented? It is held to be at court. The court is where affairs of government are managed; the ministers jointly examine the posthumous name, report it to the ruler, and then add it. Women are compared to grand masters, so only the ruler is informed. How do we know it is not at the southern suburb? A woman has no business at the outer court to begin with, so why go to the suburb? The Book of Rites, in Zengzi Asks, says: "Only the Son of Heaven invokes Heaven to give him his posthumous name." "Wei" means only, showing that only the Son of Heaven is at the southern suburb.

顯號諡何法？法曰未出而明。已入有餘光也。

What do the illustrious titles and posthumous names model themselves on? They model on the sun, which is bright before it has risen, and still has remaining light after it has set.

五祀者，何謂也？謂門、戶、井、灶、中ニ也。所以祭何？人之所處出入、所飲食，故為神而祭之。何以知五祀謂門、戶、井、灶、中ニ也？《月令》曰：“其祀戶。”又曰：“其祀灶。”“其祀中ニ。”“其祀門。”“其祀井。”

What are the Five Household Sacrifices? They are the gate, the door, the well, the stove and the central courtyard (the base text has a mistaken character for "zhong liu," central courtyard). Why are they sacrificed to? Because these are the places where people dwell, go in and out, and eat and drink, and so they are sacrificed to as spirits. How do we know the Five Household Sacrifices are the gate, door, well, stove and central courtyard? The Monthly Ordinances say: "What is sacrificed to is the door." It also says: "What is sacrificed to is the stove." "What is sacrificed to is the central courtyard." "What is sacrificed to is the gate." "What is sacrificed to is the well."

獨大夫已上得祭之何？士者，位卑祿薄，但祭其先祖耳。《禮》曰：“天子祭天地，諸侯祭山川，卿、大夫祭五祀，士祭其祖。”《曲禮》曰：“天地四時山川五祀，歲遍；諸侯方祀，山川五祀，歲遍；卿大夫祭五祀；士祭其先。非所當祭而祭之名曰淫祀。淫祀無福。”

Only grand masters and above may sacrifice to them; why? Scholars are of low rank with small salaries, and only sacrifice to their own ancestors. The Rites say: "The Son of Heaven sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, the feudal lords sacrifice to the mountains and rivers, ministers and grand masters sacrifice to the five household spirits, and scholars sacrifice to their own ancestors." The Quli says: "Heaven and Earth, the four seasons, mountains and rivers and the five household spirits are sacrificed to in a full round each year; the feudal lords sacrifice to their own region, mountains and rivers and the five household spirits in a full round each year; ministers and grand masters sacrifice to the five household spirits; scholars sacrifice to their own forebears. To sacrifice to what should not be sacrificed to is called an excessive sacrifice. Excessive sacrifice brings no blessing."

祭五祀所以歲一遍何？順五行也。故春即祭戶。戶者，人所出入，亦春萬物始觸戶而出也。夏祭灶者，火之主人，所以自養也，夏亦火王，長養萬物。秋祭門。門以閉藏自固也，秋亦萬物成熟，內備自守也。冬祭井。井者，水之生藏任地中，冬亦水王，萬物伏藏。六月祭中ニ。中ニ者，象土在中央也，六月亦土王也。故《月令》春言“其祀戶，祭先脾”，夏言“其祀灶，祭先肺”，秋言“其祀門，祭先肝”，冬言“其祀井，祭先腎”，中央言“其祀中ニ，祭先心。”春祀戶，祭所以時先脾者何？脾者，土也，春木王煞土，故以所勝祭之也；是冬腎，六月心，非所勝也，以祭何？以為土位在中央，至尊，故祭以心。心者，藏之尊者。水最卑，不得食其所勝。

Why is each of the Five Household Sacrifices offered once a year? Following the Five Phases. So in spring they sacrifice to the door. The door is where people go out and in, and in spring the myriad things also begin to burst forth through the door. In summer they sacrifice to the stove: the stove is the master of fire and is used to nourish oneself, and in summer fire also holds sway, nurturing the myriad things. In autumn they sacrifice to the gate: the gate is used to close, store and strengthen oneself, and in autumn the myriad things also ripen and are stored within, guarding themselves. In winter they sacrifice to the well: the well is where water arises, hides and rests in the earth, and in winter water also holds sway and the myriad things lie hidden. In the sixth month they sacrifice to the central courtyard: the central courtyard is like earth in the center, and in the sixth month earth also holds sway. So the Monthly Ordinances say in spring "what is sacrificed to is the door, and at the sacrifice the spleen is offered first," in summer "what is sacrificed to is the stove, and at the sacrifice the lungs are offered first," in autumn "what is sacrificed to is the gate, and at the sacrifice the liver is offered first," in winter "what is sacrificed to is the well, and at the sacrifice the kidneys are offered first," and in the center "what is sacrificed to is the central courtyard, and at the sacrifice the heart is offered first." In the spring sacrifice to the door, why is the spleen offered first? The spleen belongs to earth, and in spring wood holds sway and overcomes earth, so what it overcomes is used for the sacrifice. As for using kidneys in winter and heart in the sixth month, these are not what is overcome; why are they also offered thus? Because the earth position is in the center and is the most honored, so the heart is used for sacrifice. The heart is the most honored of the five viscera. Water is the lowest, and may not eat what it overcomes.

祭五祀，天子、諸侯以牛，卿、大夫以羊，因四時祭牲也。一說：戶以羊，灶以雞，中ニ以豚，門以犬，井以豕。或曰：中ニ用牛，餘不得用豚，井以魚。

In sacrificing to the Five Household Spirits, the Son of Heaven and feudal lords use an ox, and ministers and grand masters use a sheep, which accords with the animals used in the regular sacrifices of the four seasons. One view: for the door use a sheep, for the stove a chicken, for the central courtyard a piglet, for the gate a dog, for the well a pig. Another view: for the central courtyard use an ox, the others may not use a piglet, and for the well use fish.

王者所以有社稷何？為天下求福報功。人非土不立，非谷不食。土地廣博，不可遍敬也；五穀眾多，不可一一祭也。故封土立社，示有土尊。稷，五穀之長，故封稷而祭之也。尚書曰：乃社於新邑孝經曰。保其社稷而和其民人。蓋諸侯之孝也。稷者，得陰陽中和之氣，而用尤多，故為長也。

The reason a king has the she and ji (the spirits of soil and of grain) is to seek blessing for the world and repay merit. People cannot stand without soil and cannot eat without grain. The earth is vast and it is not possible to pay reverence everywhere; the five grains are of many kinds and it is not possible to sacrifice to them one by one. So earth is heaped up and an altar of soil is set up to show the dignity of having land. Ji is the chief of the five grains, so ji is enfeoffed and sacrificed to. The Documents say: "Then they set up the altar of the soil in the new city." The Classic of Filial Piety says: "Preserve the altars of the state, and harmonize the people." This is probably the filial piety of the feudal lords. Ji receives the breath of yin and yang in harmony and is used all the more, and so it is the chief.

歲再祭何？春求谷之義也。故《月令》，仲春之月，擇元日命人社。”《援神契》曰：“仲春獲禾，報社祭稷。”

Why is it sacrificed to twice a year? Spring is the idea of seeking grain. So the Monthly Ordinances say: in the second month of spring, choose an auspicious day and order the people to sacrifice to the altar of the soil. The Yuanshen Qi says: "In mid-spring they harvest the grain, and repay with sacrifice to the she and ji."

以三牲何？重功故也。《尚書》曰：“乃社於新邑，羊一、牛一、豕一。”《王制》曰：“天子社稷皆大牢，諸侯社稷皆少牢。”宗廟俱大牢，社稷獨少牢何？宗廟大牢，所以廣孝道也。社稷為報功，諸侯一國，所報者少故也。

Why are three animals used? Because the merit is valued. The Documents say: "Then they set up the altar of the soil in the new city, one sheep, one ox, one pig." The Royal Regulations say: "For the Son of Heaven's she and ji both use the grand sacrifice, and for the feudal lords' she and ji both use the lesser sacrifice." The ancestral temples all use the full sacrifice, but the she and ji alone use the lesser sacrifice; why? The ancestral temple uses the grand sacrifice in order to extend filial piety; the she and ji are repaying merit, and a feudal lord has only one state, so what is repaid is less, and so it is so.

王者、諸侯俱兩社何？俱有土之君，《禮記?三正記》曰：“王者二社，為天下立禮曰太社，自為立社曰王社；諸侯為百姓立社曰國社，自為立社曰侯社。太社為天下報功，王社為京師報功，太社尊於王社。土地故兩報之。

Kings and feudal lords both have two altars of the soil; why? Because both are rulers who hold land. The Book of Rites, in the Record of the Three Rectifications, says: "A king has two altars of the soil: the one set up for the world is called the Grand She, and the one set up for himself is called the King's She; a feudal lord's, set up for the common people, is called the State She, and the one set up for himself is called the Marquis's She. The Grand She repays merit on behalf of the world, the King's She repays merit on behalf of the capital, and the Grand She is more honored than the King's She. The land (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription) therefore repays merit in two places."

王者、諸侯必有誡社何？示有存亡也。明為善者得之，惡者失之。故《春秋公羊傳》曰：“亡國之社，奄其上，柴其下。”《郊特牲》曰：“喪國之社，屋之。”自言與天地絕也。在門東，明自下之無事處也。或曰：皆當著明誡，當近君，置宗廟之牆南。《禮》曰：“亡國之社稷，必以為宗廟之屏。”示賤之也。

Kings and feudal lords must have a warning altar (the altar of a fallen state, kept as a warning); why? To show that there is survival and ruin. It shows that those who do good obtain it and those who do evil lose it. So the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn says: "The altar of the soil of a ruined state is covered above and blocked with brushwood below." The Jiao Te Sheng says: "The altar of a destroyed state is covered with a roof." It is saying itself that it is cut off from heaven and earth. It is placed east of the gate, showing that it lies in a low place with nothing to do. Another view: all should be placed in a bright place as a warning, and should be near the ruler, set south of the wall of the ancestral temple. The Rites say: "The altars of a ruined state must be made into a screen for the ancestral temple." This shows contempt for it.

社稷在中門之外、外門之內何？尊而親之，與先祖同也。不置中門內何？敬之，示不褻瀆也。《論語》曰：“譬諸宮牆，不得其門而入。不見宗廟之美，百官之富。”《祭義》曰：“右社稷，左宗廟。”

The altars of the soil and grain are outside the middle gate and inside the outer gate; why? To honor them and also to keep them close, the same as with the ancestors. Why are they not placed inside the middle gate? To revere them, showing that they are not profaned. The Analects says: "It is like a palace wall; if one does not find the gate and enter, one does not see the beauty of the ancestral temple or the richness of the hundred officials." The Meaning of Sacrifice says: "On the right are the she and ji, on the left the ancestral temple."

大夫有民，其有社稷者，亦為報功也。《禮?祭法》曰：“大夫成群立社，曰置在。”《月令》曰：“擇元日，命人社。”《論語》曰：“季路使子羔為費宰，曰：‘有民人馬，有社稷焉。’”

A grand master has people, and they have a she and ji, again in order to repay merit. The Book of Rites, in the Rules of Sacrifice, says: "When grand masters gather into a group and set up an altar of the soil, it is called a set-up she." (The base text has "zai" for "she," an error.) The Monthly Ordinances say: "Choose an auspicious day and order the people to sacrifice to the she." The Analects says: "Jilu had Zigao serve as steward of Fei, saying: 'There are people there and there are the she and ji.'" (The base text has "ma" for "yan," an error.)

不謂之土何？封土為社，故變名謂之社，別於眾土也。為社立祀，始謂之稷，語亦自變，有內外。或曰：至社稷，不以稷為社，故不變其名事，自可知也。不正月祭稷何？禮不常存，養人為用，故立其神。

Why is it not called "tu" (earth)? Earth is heaped up to make the she, so the name is changed to she, to distinguish it from ordinary earth. Setting up sacrifice for the she, only then is it called ji, and the wording itself also changes, with an inner and an outer. Another view: when speaking of she and ji, ji is not treated as she, so its name is not changed, and the matter can naturally be understood. Why is ji not sacrificed to in the first month? Ritual is not simply that it is always set up; nourishing people is for use, so a spirit is established for it.

社無屋何？達天地氣。故《郊特牲》曰：“太社稷，必受霜露風雨，以達天地之氣。”社稷所以有樹何？尊而識之，使民人望見師敬之，又所以表功也。故《周官》曰：“司社而樹之，各以土地所生。”《尚書》亡篇曰：“太社唯松，東社唯柏，南社唯梓，西社唯栗，北社唯槐。”

The she has no roof; why? To let the breath of Heaven and Earth pass through. So the Jiao Te Sheng says: "The Grand She and Ji must receive frost, dew, wind and rain, in order to let the breath of Heaven and Earth pass through." Why do the she and ji have trees? To honor them and mark them, so that when people see them they feel reverence, and also to make the merit manifest. So the Rites of Zhou says: "The one in charge of the she plants trees for it, each using what the soil of that place produces." A lost chapter of the Documents says: "The Grand She uses only pine, the East She uses only cypress, the South She uses only catalpa, the West She uses only chestnut, and the North She uses only locust."

王者自親祭社稷何？社者，土地之神也。土生萬物，天下之所主也，尊重之，故自祭也。

The king sacrifices to the she and ji in person; why? The she is the spirit of the earth. Earth gives birth to the myriad things and is the main body on which the world depends, and he honors it, so he sacrifices in person.

其壇大何？如《春秋文義》曰：“天子之社稷廣五丈，諸侯半之。”其色如何？《春秋傳》曰：“天子有太社焉，東方青色，南方赤色，西方白色，北方黑色，上冒以黃土。故將封東方諸侯，青土，苴以白茅。謹敬潔清也。”

How large is the altar? As the Chunqiu Wenyi says: "The Son of Heaven's she and ji are five zhang wide, and a feudal lord's is half that." What are its colors? The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "The Son of Heaven has the Grand She, green in the east, red in the south, white in the west and black in the north, covered above with yellow earth. So when about to enfeoff a feudal lord of the east, one uses green earth, wrapped in white thatch. This is for care, reverence and cleanliness."

祭社有樂，《樂記》曰：“樂之施於金石絲竹，越於聲音，用之於宗廟社稷。”

The sacrifice to the she has music. The Record of Music says: "Music is applied to metal, stone, silk and bamboo, issues as sound, and is used in the ancestral temple and the she and ji."

《曾子問》曰：“諸侯之祭社稷，俎豆既陳，聞天子崩，如之何？孔子曰：廢。”臣子哀痛之，不敢終於禮也。

The Zengzi Asks says: "When a feudal lord is sacrificing to the she and ji, with the sacrificial stands and vessels already laid out, and hears that the Son of Heaven has died, what should be done? Confucius said: stop." The ministers are grieved and do not dare to complete the ritual.

禮樂者，何謂也？禮之為言履也，可履踐而行樂者；樂也，君子樂得其道，小人樂得其欲。王者所以盛禮樂何？節文之喜怒。樂以象天，禮以法地。人無不含天地之氣，有五常之性者，故樂所以盪滌，反其邪惡也，禮所以防淫佚，節其侈靡也。故《孝經》曰：“安上治民，莫善於禮；移風易俗，莫善於樂。”子曰：“樂在宗廟之中，君臣上下同聽之，則莫不和敬；族長鄉里之中，長幼同聽之，則莫不和順；在閨門之內，父子兄弟同聽之，則莫不和親。故樂者，所以崇和順，比物飾節，節奏合以成文，所以合和父子、君臣，附親萬民也。是先王立樂之意也。故聽其雅、頌之聲，志意得廣焉，執干鏚習俯仰屈信，容貌得齊焉；其輟兆，要其節奏，行列得正焉，進退得齊焉。故樂者天地之命、中和之紀、人情之所不能免焉也。夫樂者，先王之所以飾喜也；軍旅鉞，所以飾怒也。故先王之喜怒，皆得其齊焉，喜則天下和之，怒則暴亂者畏之。先王之道，禮樂可謂盛矣。”聞角聲，莫不惻隱而慈者；聞徵聲，莫不喜養好施者；聞聲，莫不剛斷而立事者；聞羽聲，莫不深思而遠慮者；聞宮聲，莫不溫潤而寬和者也。

What are ritual and music? "Li" (ritual) means to tread, something one can walk on and practice; "yue" (music) is joy: the gentleman delights in attaining the Way, and the petty man delights in attaining desire. The reason a king makes ritual and music grand is to regulate and adorn joy and anger. Music takes its image from Heaven, and ritual takes its model from Earth. There is no one who does not hold the breath of Heaven and Earth and have the nature of the five constants, so music is used to cleanse and bring evil back to the right path, and ritual is used to prevent excess and restrain extravagance. So the Classic of Filial Piety says: "To keep those above secure and govern the people, nothing is better than ritual; to change customs and alter habits, nothing is better than music." Confucius said: "When music is in the ancestral temple, ruler and ministers, above and below, listening together, none is not harmonious and reverent; in the clan chief's and village's setting, old and young listening together, none is not harmonious and obedient; within the inner chambers, fathers, sons and brothers listening together, none is not harmonious and affectionate. So music is used to exalt harmony and compliance, to arrange things in order, to adorn the rhythm, and when the rhythm accords it becomes refinement, to harmonize fathers and sons, rulers and ministers, and make the myriad people attached. This is the original intent of the former kings in establishing music. So listening to the sound of the Ya and the Song, one's intentions broaden; holding the shield and the axe, practicing bowing, rising, bending and stretching, one's bearing becomes orderly; treading the dance positions and keeping to the rhythm, one's ranks become upright and advancing and retreating even. So music is the command of Heaven and Earth, the guiding thread of harmony and the mean, and something human feeling cannot dispense with. Music is what the former kings used to adorn joy; the (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription) axe in the army is used to adorn anger. So the joy and anger of the former kings were each fitting: in joy, the world responded in harmony, and in anger, the violent and disorderly were afraid. In the Way of the former kings, ritual and music may be called grand." On hearing the jue note, none fails to be compassionate and loving; on hearing the zhi note, none fails to delight in nurturing and be glad to give; on hearing the (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription) note, none fails to be resolute and decisive and able to establish affairs; on hearing the yu note, none fails to think deeply and far; on hearing the gong note, none fails to be gentle, soft and tolerant.

禮所揖讓何？所以尊人自損也，不爭。《論語》曰：“揖讓而升，下而飲，其爭也君子。”故“君使臣以禮，臣事君以忠。”“謙謙君子，利涉大川。”以貴下賤，大得民也。屈己敬人，君子之心。故孔子曰：“為禮不敬，吾何以觀之哉！”夫禮者，陰陽之際也，百事之會也，所以尊天地，儐鬼神，序上下，正人道也。

Why does ritual have bowing and yielding? To honor others and yield oneself, without contention. The Analects says: "They bow and yield, then ascend the hall, and descend to drink; this kind of contention too is a gentleman's contention." So "the ruler employs his ministers by ritual, and the ministers serve the ruler with loyalty." "The modest gentleman is favorable for crossing a great river." To come down from honor to the lowly is greatly to win the hearts of the people. To humble oneself and respect others is the gentleman's heart. So Confucius said: "Practicing ritual without reverence, how can I look at him!" Ritual is where yin and yang meet and the pivot where the hundred affairs gather, used to honor Heaven and Earth, welcome the spirits, arrange the order of high and low, and set right the human way.

樂所以必歌者何？夫歌者，口言之也。中心喜樂，口欲歌之，手欲舞之，足欲蹈之。故《尚書》曰：“前歌後舞，假於上下。”禮貴忠何？禮者，盛不足節有餘，使豐年不奢，凶年不儉，貧富不相懸也。樂尚雅？雅者，古正也，所以遠鄭聲也。孔子曰：“鄭聲淫何？鄭國土地民人，山居谷浴，男女錯雜，為鄭聲以相悅懌，故邪僻聲，皆淫色之聲也。”

Why must music be sung? Song is speaking with the mouth. When the heart is joyful, the mouth wants to sing, the hands want to dance, and the feet want to stamp. So the Documents say: "Singing in front and dancing behind, communicating above and below." Why does ritual value loyalty? Ritual makes up what is lacking and restrains excess, so that in a good year there is no extravagance, in a bad year one does not fall into over-thrift, and poor and rich are not far apart. Why does music honor the Ya? Ya means ancient and correct, used to keep away from the sounds of Zheng. Confucius said: "Why are the sounds of Zheng licentious? In the land of Zheng, the people lived in the mountains and bathed in the valleys, men and women mingled, and made the sounds of Zheng to please one another, so those crooked sounds are all sounds that indulge in women's beauty."

太平乃制禮作樂何？夫禮樂，所以防奢淫。天下人民飢寒，何樂之乎！功成作樂，治定製禮。樂言作、禮言制何？樂者，陽也，陽倡始，故言作；禮者，陰也，陰制度於陽，故言制。樂象陽，禮法陰也。

Why are ritual and music made only when the world is at peace? Ritual and music are to prevent extravagance and excess. When the people of the world are still hungry and cold, what is there to rejoice at! When achievements are complete, music is made, and when government is settled, ritual is established. Why does one say "compose" for music and "establish" for ritual? Music belongs to yang, and yang leads the beginning, so it is said "compose"; ritual belongs to yin, and yin receives its regulations from yang, so it is said "establish." Music takes its image from yang, and ritual takes its model from yin.

王者始起，何用正民？以為且用先王之禮樂，天下太平，乃更製作焉。《書》曰：“肇修殷殷禮，祀新邑。”此言太平去殷禮。《春秋傳》曰：“昌何為不修乎近而修乎遠，同己也，可因先以太平也。”必復更制者，示不襲也，又天下樂之者。樂者所以象德表功殊名。《禮記》曰：“黃帝樂曰《咸池》，顓頊樂曰《六莖》，帝嚳樂曰《五英》，堯樂曰《大章》，舜樂曰《簫韶》，禹樂曰《大夏》，湯樂曰《大護》。周樂曰《大武象》，周公之樂曰《酌》，合曰《大武》。”黃帝曰《咸池》者，言大施天下之道而行之，天之所生，地之所載，鹹蒙德施也；顓頊曰《六莖》者，言和律歷以調陰陽，莖者著萬物也；帝嚳曰《五英》者，言能調和五聲以養萬物，調其英華也；堯曰《大章》，大明天地人之道也；舜曰《簫韶》者，舜能繼堯之道也，禹曰《大夏》者，言禹能順二聖之道而行之，故曰《大夏》也；湯曰《大護》者，言湯承衰，能護民之急也；周公曰《酌合》者，言周公輔成王，能斟酌文武之道而成之也；武王曰《象》者，象太平而作樂，示已太平也；合曰《大武》者，天下始樂周之徵伐行武，故詩人歌之：“王赫斯怒，爰整其旅。”當此之時，天下樂文王之怒，以定天下，故樂其武也。周室中制《象湯》樂何？殷紂為惡日久，其惡最甚，斫涉刳胎，殘賊天下。武王起兵，前歌後舞。克殷之後，民人大喜，故中作所以節喜盛。

When a king has just arisen, what is used to set the people right? It is held that for the time being the ritual and music of the former kings are used first, and when the world is at peace, new ones are made separately. The Documents say: "He first revised the rites of Yin and sacrificed in the new city." This says that after the world was at peace the Yin rites were discarded. The Spring and Autumn Commentary says: "Why not revise the near ones but the distant ones? Because they are the same as oneself, and one may continue those of the former age to await peace." It is necessary to make new ones separately to show that one is not simply following, and also because it is what the world delights in. Music is used to image virtue, display merit and distinguish names. The Book of Rites says: "The Yellow Emperor's music was called Xianchi, Zhuanxu's was Liujing, Emperor Ku's was Wuying, Yao's was Dazhang, Shun's was Xiaoshao, Yu's was Daxia, and Tang's was Dahu. Zhou's music was called Dawu Xiang, the Duke of Zhou's was called Zhuo, and together they are called Dawu." The Yellow Emperor's was called Xianchi, saying that the Way of the world was universally carried out, and what Heaven gave birth to and Earth bore all received the bestowal of virtue; Zhuanxu's was called Liujing, saying that he harmonized the pitch-pipes and calendar to regulate yin and yang, and "jing" makes the myriad things conspicuous; Emperor Ku's was called Wuying, saying that he could harmonize the five sounds to nourish the myriad things and tend their blossoms; Yao's was called Dazhang, greatly making plain the way of Heaven, Earth and man; Shun's was called Xiaoshao, because Shun could continue Yao's way; Yu's was called Daxia, because Yu could follow the Way of the two sages and carry it out, so it was called Daxia; Tang's was called Dahu, because Tang took over a declining age and could protect the people from urgent distress; the Duke of Zhou's was called Zhuo, because the Duke of Zhou assisted King Cheng and could weigh the Way of King Wen and King Wu and complete it; King Wu's was called Xiang, taking the image of peace to make music, showing that he himself had brought peace; together it was called Dawu, because the world first delighted in Zhou's martial campaign, so the poet sang: "The king flared up in wrath, and then drilled his army." At that time the world was glad of King Wen's anger, used to settle the world, so it delighted in his martial deeds. In the middle of the Zhou house the Xiang and such music were made; why? King Zhou of Yin had done evil for a long time and his evil was the worst, cutting the shins of those who forded streams and cutting open pregnant women, harming the world. When King Wu raised troops, they sang in front and danced behind. After conquering Yin, the people were greatly delighted, so the music was made in the middle, in order to restrain excess of joy.

天子八佾，諸侯四佾，所以別尊卑。樂者陽也，故以陰數。法八風、六律、四時也。八風、六律者，天氣也，助天地成萬物者也，亦猶樂，所以順氣，變化萬民，成其性命也。故《春秋公羊傳》曰：“天子八佾，諸公六佾，諸侯四佾。”《詩》曰：“大夫士，琴瑟御。”八佾者何謂也，佾者列也，以八人為行，列八八六十四人也。諸公六六為行；諸侯四四為行。諸公謂三公、二王后。大夫士，北面之臣，非專事子民者也，故但琴瑟而已。

The Son of Heaven has eight rows of dancers, the feudal lords four rows, to distinguish high and low. Music belongs to yang, so it uses a yin number. It takes its models from the eight winds, six pitch-pipes and four seasons. The eight winds and six pitch-pipes are the breath of Heaven, assisting Heaven and Earth in completing the myriad things, and are also like music, used to accord with the breath, transform the myriad people and complete their nature and fate. So the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn says: "The Son of Heaven has eight rows, the dukes have six rows, and the feudal lords four rows." The Odes say: "Grand masters and scholars, are served with zither and se." What are eight rows? "Yi" means a row, with eight people to a line, forming eight times eight, sixty-four people. The dukes use six times six; the feudal lords use four times four. The dukes means the Three Dukes and the descendants of the two kings. Grand masters and scholars are ministers who face north and are not specially in charge of governing the people, so they use only zither and se.

王者有六樂者，貴公美德也。所以作供養。傾先王之樂，明有法，示亡其本。興己所以自作樂，明作己也。

A king has six musics, valuing impartiality and praising virtue. They are used for nourishing. To incline one's heart toward the music of the former kings shows that there are laws to rely on and shows that one does not lose the root; to rise up oneself and therefore make one's own music shows that the making comes from oneself.

樂所以作四夷之樂何？德廣及之也。《易》曰：“先王以作樂崇德，殷薦之上帝，以配祖考。《詩》云：“奏鼓簡簡，ぅ我烈祖。”《樂元語》曰：“受命而六樂。樂先王之樂，明有法也；與其所自作，明有制；興四夷之樂，明德廣及之也。故南夷之樂曰《兜》，西夷之樂曰《禁》，北夷之樂曰《昧》，東夷之樂曰《離》。合歡之樂亻舞於堂，四夷之樂陳於右，先王所以得之，順命重始也。

Why must the music of the four barbarians be made? Because virtue is broad and can reach them. The Changes say: "The former kings made music to exalt virtue, and presented it grandly to the Lord on High, to match it with their ancestors." The Odes say: "The sound of the drums is upright and proper, and gladdens our meritorious ancestors." (The base text has a garbled character for "kan," glad, here.) The Yueyuan Yu says: "Receiving the mandate there are six musics. Playing the music of the former kings shows that there are laws; adding what one has made oneself shows that there are institutions; raising the music of the four barbarians shows that virtue is broad and can reach them. So the music of the southern barbarians is called Dou, that of the western barbarians is called Jin, that of the northern barbarians is called Mei, and that of the eastern barbarians is called Li. The music of joint delight is danced in the hall, and the music of the four barbarians is set out on the right." (The base text has a split-up form of the character "wu," dance, here.) The former kings obtained these by following the mandate of Heaven and valuing beginnings.

此言以人得之，先以文，謂持羽毛亻舞也；以武得之，先以武，謂持干鏚亻舞也。《樂元語》曰：“東夷之樂持矛舞，助時生也；南夷之樂持羽舞，助時養也；西夷之樂持戰舞，助時煞也。”北夷之樂持幹舞助時藏也，誰制夷狄之樂？以為先聖王也。先王惟行道德，和調陰陽，覆被夷狄，故夷狄安樂，來朝中國，於是作樂樂之。《南》之為言任也，任養萬物；《味》之為言昧也，昧者，萬物老衰，禁者萬物禁藏，侏離者萬物微離地而生。

This says: those who gained the world by civil virtue use civil forms first, that is, dance holding feathers; those who gained the world by martial achievement use martial forms first, that is, dance holding shield and axe. (The base text has a split-up form of "wu," dance, here.) The Yueyuan Yu says: "The music of the eastern barbarians is danced with spears, to help the season's birth; the music of the southern barbarians is danced with feathers, to help the season's growth; the music of the western barbarians is danced with halberds, to help the season's stern killing." The music of the northern barbarians is danced with shields, to help the season's closing and storing. Who established the barbarians' music? It is held to be the former sage kings. The former kings only practiced virtue, harmonized yin and yang, and extended their cover to the barbarians, so the barbarians were at peace and came to court the Central Plain, and so music was made to delight them. The Nan means "ren," to bear the nurturing of the myriad things; the Mei means "dark," for the myriad things growing old; Jin is for the myriad things being shut in and stored; Zhuli is for the myriad things slightly leaving the earth to be born.