Yan Tie Lun (鹽鐵論) · Volume 5

惟始元六年有詔書使丞相【去聲】御史與所舉賢良文學語問民間所疾苦【漢書食貨志曰昭帝即位六年詔郡國舉賢良文學之士問以民所疾苦教化之要車千秋傳曰武帝疾立皇子鉤弋夫人男為太子拜大將軍霍光車騎將軍金日防禦史大夫桑羊及丞相千秋並受遺詔輔道少主武帝崩昭帝初即位未任聼政政事壹決大將軍光千秋居丞相位謹厚有重徳始元六年昭帝詔郡國舉賢良文學之士問以民所疾苦於是鹽鐵之議起焉】

In the sixth year of Shiyuan, an edict ordered the Chancellor and Grand Secretary [pronunciation note: the character xiang in 'chancellor' is read in the falling tone] to converse with the recommended worthies and literati and ask what the people suffered. [The Treatise on Food and Goods in the Han Shu says: in the sixth year of Emperor Zhao's reign, an edict ordered the commanderies and kingdoms to recommend men of worth and literary learning to ask about the sufferings of the people and the essentials of teaching. The Biography of Che Qianqiu says: when Emperor Wu was gravely ill, he set the boy born of Lady Gouyi as crown prince and appointed the General-in-Chief Huo Guang, the General of Chariots and Cavalry Jin Midi, the Grand Secretary Sang Hongyang (the base text has a rare character for 'Hong' lost in transcription), and the Chancellor Qianqiu together to receive the posthumous edict and assist the young lord. When Emperor Wu died, Emperor Zhao had just taken the throne and could not yet attend to government, and government was entirely decided by the General-in-Chief Huo Guang. Qianqiu held the position of Chancellor, careful and generous with deep virtue. In the sixth year of Shiyuan, Emperor Zhao ordered the commanderies and kingdoms to recommend men of worth and literary learning to ask about the sufferings of the people, and thus the debate on salt and iron arose.]

文學對曰竊聞治人之道坊【古防字】淫佚【音逸】之原廣道徳之端抑末利而開仁義毋【音無】示以利然後教化可興而風俗可移也今郡國有鹽鐡酒【音較】均輸與民爭利【食貨志曰大農上鹽鐵丞孔僅咸陽言山海天地之崴也皆宜屬少府陛下不私以屬大農佐賦願募民自給費因官器作煮鹽官與牢盆浮食竒名欲擅管山海之貨以致富羨役利細民其沮事之議不可勝聼敢私鑄鐵器煮鹽者鈇左趾沒入其器物郡不出鐵者置小鐵官便屬在所縣使孔僅東郭咸陽乗傳舉行天下鹽鐵作官府除故鹽鐵家富者為吏武帝紀曰天漢三年春二月初酒酤是時桑羊為大司農蓋其所建也應劭曰縣官自酤賣酒小民不得復酤也韋昭曰謂禁民酤釀獨官開置如道路設木為獨取利也爾雅謂之石槓今之畧彴是也禁閉其事揔利入官而下無由以得有若渡水之因立名焉史記平凖書曰元封元年桑羊為治粟都尉領大農代孔僅筦天下鹽鐵羊以諸官各自市相與爭物故騰躍而天下賦輸或不償其僦費乃請置大農部丞數十人分部主郡國各徃徃縣置均輸令逺方各以其物貴時商賈所轉販者為賦而相輸置平凖於京師都受天下委輸各工官治車諸器皆仰給大農大農之諸官盡籠天下之貨物貴即賣之賤則買之如此富商大賈無所牟大利則反本而萬物不得騰踴故抑天下物名曰平凖天子以為然許之於是天子北至朔方東到太山廵海上並北邊以歸所過賞賜用帛百餘萬匹錢金以鉅萬計皆取足大農】散敦厚之樸成貪鄙之化是以百姓就本者寡趨末者眾夫【音扶】文繁則質衰末盛則本虧末修則民淫本修則民慤【音卻善也誠也】民慤則財用足民侈則飢寒生願罷鹽鐡酒【音較】均輸所以進本退末廣利農業便也

The literati replied: I privately hear that the way to govern people is to block [fang is the old form of fang, 'guard against'] the source of licentiousness [pronunciation note: yi is read yi] and to extend the first threads of virtue, to suppress the profit of secondary pursuits and open up benevolence and righteousness, and not [pronunciation note: wu is read wu] to show profit to the people; only then can teaching flourish and customs change. Now the commanderies and kingdoms have salt and iron monopolies, the wine monopoly [pronunciation note: the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription, read jiao, being the 'monopoly' of the wine monopoly] and the equalizing transport, competing for profit with the people [the Treatise on Food and Goods says: the Grand Minister of Agriculture presented the words of the salt and iron assistants Kong Jin and Dongguo Xianyang, saying that the mountains and seas are the treasuries of Heaven and Earth (the base text writes a wrong character for 'treasuries,' which should be the usual one), and should all belong to the Privy Treasury; but Your Majesty does not take them as private possessions and has assigned them to the Grand Minister of Agriculture to supplement the taxes. They hoped to recruit the common people to supply their own expenses, boiling salt with government equipment, with the government providing the iron pans. Those idle, extraordinary men wanted to monopolize the goods of the mountains and seas to get rich and use the common people to gain profit; there was no end of arguments obstructing this matter. Those who dared privately cast iron implements or boil salt would have their left toe shackled and their equipment confiscated. In commanderies that produce no iron, small iron offices were set up, attached to the local county. Kong Jin and Dongguo Xianyang were sent by post carriage to tour the salt and iron works of the empire, set up offices, and appoint as officials wealthy people from the old salt and iron households. The Annals of Emperor Wu says: in the second month of spring in the third year of Tianhan, the wine monopoly was first established. At this time Sang Hongyang was Grand Minister of Agriculture, and it was probably his proposal. Ying Shao says: the county government sells wine itself as a monopoly, and common people may no longer sell wine. Wei Zhao says: que means forbidding the common people to brew and sell, letting only the government open it, like a wooden que set across a road to take profit alone. The Erya calls it a stone bar, which is today's lueyue (narrow bridge). It closes off the matter and gathers all profit into the government, so that those below cannot obtain it, like a ferry bridge across water, and thus the name was set. The Treatise on the Balanced Standard in the Shi Ji says: in the first year of Yuanfeng, Sang Hongyang served as Commandant of Grain, concurrently leading the Grand Minister of Agriculture, taking over from Kong Jin the management of the salt and iron of the empire. Because officials were each buying goods and competing with one another, prices leapt up, and the taxes and transport of the empire sometimes did not cover even the freight cost, Hongyang requested that several dozen deputy offices of the Grand Minister of Agriculture be set up to manage the commanderies and kingdoms by region, and that the counties often have an equalizing transport officer; distant places would each pay as tax the goods that merchants resold at high prices, and transfer them to one another (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription); in the capital, a balanced standard office was set up to receive all the transported goods of the empire. All the craft offices that built carriages and implements drew their supplies from the Grand Minister of Agriculture. The offices under the Grand Minister of Agriculture gathered all the goods of the empire, selling when prices were high and buying when low. In this way rich merchants and great traders had no way to make great profit and returned to the root occupation, and goods could not leap in price. So the price of goods under heaven was suppressed, and it was called the balanced standard. The Son of Heaven thought it right and permitted it. Then the Son of Heaven went north to Shuofang, east to Mount Tai, toured the sea coast, and returned along the northern frontier; the rewards given along the way amounted to more than a million bolts of silk and tens of thousands of strings of cash and gold, all drawn in full from the Grand Minister of Agriculture.] They scattered the plain sincerity of generous people and fostered a greedy and base fashion of teaching. So few among the hundred clans return to the root occupation and many hasten to the secondary. The sentence-opening fu [pronunciation note: fu is read fu]: when ornament flourishes, substance decays; when secondary occupations flourish, the root occupation is diminished; when secondary occupations are cultivated, the people become extravagant; when the root occupation is cultivated, the people become honest and generous [pronunciation note: que is read que; que means good and sincere]. When the people are honest and generous, resources are sufficient; when the people are extravagant, hunger and cold arise. We hope the salt and iron monopolies, the wine monopoly [pronunciation note: que is read jiao], and the equalizing transport will be abolished, so as to advance the root and retreat the secondary and spread the benefit of agriculture; this would be convenient.

大夫曰匈奴背叛不臣數【音朔頻也】為於邊鄙【匈奴傳曰匈奴其先祖夏后氏之苗裔也曰淳維樂彥括地譜雲夏桀無道湯放之鳴條三年而死其子獯鬻妻桀之眾妾避居北野隨畜移徙中國謂之匈奴晉灼雲殷時曰獯鬻周曰玁狁秦曰匈奴匈奴傳又曰元朔二年夏匈奴數萬騎入殺代郡太守恭及畧千餘人其秋匈奴又入鴈門殺畧千餘人其明年匈奴又復入代郡定襄上郡各三萬騎殺畧數千人匈奴右賢王怨漢奪之河南地而築朔方數為冦盜邊及入河南侵擾朔方殺畧吏民甚眾】備之則勞中國之士不備則侵盜不止先帝哀邊人之久患苦為虜所繫獲也故修障【音瘴】塞【音賽】飭烽燧屯戍【音絮】以備之【先帝漢武帝也漢大行王恢曰今匈奴縱意日久矣侵盜無已係虜人民戍卒死傷中國道路櫘車相望此仁人之所哀也障保障也謂塞上要險處築城以為蔽障也塞邊塞也烽表也燧塞上亭守烽火者文頴曰邊方避冦作高土櫓櫓上作桔臯桔臯頭兠零以薪草置其中常低之有冦即火燃舉之以相告曰烽又多積薪冦至則即燃之望其煙曰燧顔師古曰晝則燔燧夜則舉烽戍守邊也從人持戈為意】邊用度不足故興鹽鐵設酒【音較】置均輸蕃貨長【音掌】財以佐助邊費今議者欲罷之內空府庫之藏外乏執備之用使備塞【音賽】乗城之士【乗城謂登城而守之也】飢寒於邊將何以澹【古贍字】之罷之不便也

The Grand Secretary (Sang Hongyang) said: The Xiongnu rebel and do not submit and repeatedly [pronunciation note: shuo is read shuo, meaning 'repeatedly'] raid the borderlands (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription) [the Treatise on the Xiongnu says: the ancestors of the Xiongnu were descendants of the House of Xia, named Chunwei. Le Yan's Kuodi Pu says: Jie of Xia was without the Way, and Tang exiled him to Mingtiao, where he died in three years; his son Xunyu took Jie's many concubines and, avoiding to the northern wilds, moved with his herds, and the Central States called them Xiongnu. Jin Zhuo says: in the Yin they were called Xunyu, in the Zhou Xianyun, and in the Qin Xiongnu. The Treatise on the Xiongnu also says: in the summer of the second year of Yuanshuo, tens of thousands of Xiongnu cavalry broke in, killed the Governor of Dai Commandery, Gong, and captured more than a thousand people; in the autumn of that year the Xiongnu again entered Yanmen, killing and plundering more than a thousand people; the next year the Xiongnu again entered Dai, Dingxiang, and Shang commanderies, with thirty thousand cavalry each, killing and plundering several thousand. The Xiongnu Worthy King of the Right resented that Han had taken the land south of the river and built Shuofang, repeatedly raided the borders, and entered south of the river to harass Shuofang, killing and plundering many officials and people.] If we guard against them, we wear out the soldiers of the Central States; if we do not, their raids and thefts never cease. The former emperor pitied the border people long suffering harm and being captured by the raiders, and so built barriers [pronunciation note: zhang is read zhang] and forts [pronunciation note: sai is read sai], put the beacon fires in order, and garrisoned [pronunciation note: shu is read xu] to guard [the former emperor is Emperor Wu of Han. Wang Hui, Grand Herald of Han, said: now the Xiongnu have long indulged their wishes, raiding without ceasing, taking people captive, and the garrison soldiers die and are injured, and carts carrying coffins can be seen one after another on the roads of the Central States; this is what benevolent men grieve over. Zhang means a barrier, that is, building walls at strategic places on the frontier as a shield. Sai is the frontier fort. Feng is the signal (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription), and sui is the pavilion on the frontier that guards the beacon fire. Wen Ying says: on the frontier, to avoid raiders, high earthen towers are built, and on the tower a well-sweep with a basket at the head holds firewood and straw, which is usually lowered; if raiders come, the fire is lit and raised to give notice, which is called feng; also much firewood is piled up and lit when raiders arrive, and the smoke seen is called sui. Yan Shigu says: by day they burn the sui, by night they raise the feng. Shu means to guard the border, and takes its sense from a man holding a halberd.] The border expenses were insufficient, so the salt and iron works were set up, the wine monopoly [pronunciation note: que is read jiao] established, and the equalizing transport created, to multiply goods, increase [pronunciation note: zhang is read zhang] revenue, and supplement the border costs. Now those who argue want to abolish them; then at home the stores of the treasury would be emptied, and abroad the expenses of defense would be lacking, and the soldiers who guard the forts [pronunciation note: sai is read sai] and mount the walls [cheng cheng means mounting the walls to defend] would be hungry and cold on the frontier; with what would we supply [dan is the old form of shan, 'supply,' meaning to be sufficient] them? To abolish them would not be convenient.

文學曰孔子曰有國有家者不患寡而患不均不患貧而患不安故天子不言多少諸侯不言利害大夫不言得喪【去聲】畜仁義以風之廣徳行【去聲】以懷之【韓嬰曰天子不言多少諸侯不言利害大夫不言得防士不言通財貨不賈於道故駟馬之家不恃雞豚之息伐氷之家不圖牛羊之入千乗之君不通貨財冡郷不修幣大夫不為場圃委積之臣不貪市井之利是以貧窮有所歡而孤寡有所措其手足也詩曰彼有遺秉此有滯穗伊寡婦之利】是以近者親附而逺者説【音悅】服故善克者不戰善戰者不師善師者不陳【古陣字穀梁傳曰善為國者不師善師者不陳善陳者不戰善戰者不死善死者不亡班固曰齊之技擊不可以遇魏之武卒魏之武卒不可以直秦之鋭士秦之鋭士不可以當桓文之節制桓文之節制不可以敵湯武之仁義故曰善師者不陳善陳者不戰善戰者不敗善敗者不亡若夫舜修百僚咎繇作士命以蠻夷猾夏冦賊奸軌而刑無所用所謂善師不陳者也湯武征伐陳師誓眾而放禽桀紂所謂善陳不戰者也齊桓南服強楚使貢周室北伐山戎為燕開路存亡繼絶功為伯首所謂善戰不敗者也楚昭王遭闔廬之禍國滅出亡父老送之王曰父老反矣何患無君父老曰有君如是其賢也相與從之或奔走赴秦號哭請救秦人憐之為之出兵昭王返國所謂善敗不亡者也】修之於廟堂而折沖還【音旋】師王者行仁政無敵於天下惡【音烏】用費哉

The literati said: Confucius said: "Those who hold a state or a family do not worry about scarcity but about inequality, and do not worry about poverty but about insecurity." So the Son of Heaven does not speak of much or little, the lords do not speak of benefit and harm, and grand masters do not speak of gain and loss [pronunciation note: sang is read in the falling tone]; they store up benevolence and righteousness to influence them, and extend virtue [pronunciation note: xing is read in the falling tone] to bring them in [Han Ying says: the Son of Heaven does not speak of much or little, the lords do not speak of benefit and harm, grand masters do not speak of gain and loss (the base text has a corrupt character for 'loss,' which should be the usual one), and scholars do not speak of circulating goods and do not trade on the roads. So a family with four-horse carriages does not rely on the interest of chickens and piglets, a family that cuts ice does not plan the income of cattle and sheep, a ruler of a thousand chariots does not trade in goods, a chief minister does not cultivate currency, a grand master does not make fields and gardens, and a minister with stored wealth does not covet the profit of the marketplace. So the poor have something to rejoice at, and orphans and widows have a place to put their hands and feet. The Book of Poetry says: 'There are left-behind sheaves over there, and dropped ears of grain here, the profit of the widow.'] So those near are drawn close, and those far are pleased [pronunciation note: shuo is read yue] and submit. So one who is good at defeating the enemy does not fight, one who is good at fighting does not use armies, and one who is good at using armies does not draw up formations [chen is the old form of zhen, 'formation.' The Guliang Commentary says: one who is good at governing a state does not use armies, one who is good at using armies does not draw up formations, one who is good at drawing up formations does not fight, one who is good at fighting does not die, and one who is good at dying does not perish. Ban Gu says: the striking skills of Qi cannot meet the military strength of Wei, the military strength of Wei cannot withstand the elite troops of Qin, the elite troops of Qin cannot withstand the discipline of Dukes Huan and Wen of Qi and Jin, and the discipline of Huan and Wen cannot match the benevolence and righteousness of Tang and Wu. So it is said: one who is good at using armies does not draw up formations, one who is good at drawing up formations does not fight, one who is good at fighting is not defeated, and one who is good at being defeated does not perish. As for Shun reorganizing the hundred officials and appointing Gao Yao as Minister of Justice, ordering them to deal with the barbarians disturbing Huaxia and with bandits and criminals so that punishment had nowhere to be applied, this is what is called being good at using armies without drawing up formations. When Tang and Wu campaigned, they drew up troops and took oaths and banished and captured Jie and Zhou, which is what is called being good at drawing up formations without fighting. Duke Huan of Qi subdued mighty Chu in the south, making it pay tribute to the Zhou house, and attacked the Shanrong in the north, opening a road for Yan; he preserved the lost and continued the broken, and his merit was first among hegemons; this is what is called being good at fighting without being defeated. King Zhao of Chu met the disaster of Helu, his state fell and he fled, and the elders saw him off; the king said: 'Elders, go back; why worry about having no ruler?' The elders said: 'There is a ruler as worthy as this.' They followed him one after another, and some rushed to Qin, wailing and begging for rescue; the people of Qin took pity and sent troops for him, and King Zhao returned to his state; this is what is called being good at being defeated without perishing.] When one cultivates virtue in the court, one can turn back [pronunciation note: huan is read xuan] spears and armies. When a king practices benevolent government, he has no enemy under heaven; why [pronunciation note: wu is read wu, an interrogative meaning 'why'] waste resources?

大夫曰匈奴桀黠【音舝諡法雲賊人多殺曰桀古人謂桀黠者謂其兇若桀也】擅恣入塞【音賽】犯厲中國殺伐郡縣朔方都尉甚悖不軌【法也】宜誅討之日久矣陛下垂大惠哀元元之未澹【古贍字蔡邕獨斷曰漢天子正號曰皇帝自稱曰朕臣民稱之曰陛下陛階也所由升堂也天子必有近臣執兵陳於陛側以戒不虞謂之陛下者群臣與天子言不敢指斥天子故呼在陛下者而告之因卑逹尊之意也上書亦如之及群臣士庻相與言曰殿下閤下執事之屬皆此類也元元庻民也】不忍士大夫於原野縱然被【音披】堅執鋭有北面復匈奴之志又欲罷鹽鐵均輸憂邊用損武畧無憂邊之心於其義未便也

The Grand Secretary said: The Xiongnu are fierce and cunning [pronunciation note: xia is read xia. The Rules of Posthumous Titles says: one who kills many people is called jie. The ancients said 'jie xia,' meaning their raiding (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription) is like Jie of Xia.], acting willfully and without restraint, they attacked the frontier forts [pronunciation note: sai is read sai], invaded the Central States, and attacked the commanderies and counties and the Commandant of Shuofang, being very rebellious and not keeping to the rules [gui means the rules]; they have long deserved punishment. Your Majesty has bestowed great kindness and pities the hundred clans who are still not provided for [dan is the old form of shan, 'provided for.' Cai Yong's Duduan says: the formal title of the Han Son of Heaven is Emperor, he calls himself zhen, and the ministers and people call him Bixia. Bi is the steps, by which one ascends the hall. The Son of Heaven always has close ministers holding weapons stationed beside the steps to guard against the unexpected. Calling him 'Bixia' (below the steps) means that when ministers speak to the Son of Heaven they do not dare point at him directly, so they address the one below the steps and tell him, expressing communication from the lowly to the honored. It is the same in memorials. Ministers, scholars, and commoners address one another as Dianxia, Gexia, Zhishi, and so on, all of this kind. Yuanyuan means the common people.] and cannot bear to let the scholars and grand masters suffer raiding (the base text has a rare character here, lost in transcription) in the wilds. Though they wear [pronunciation note: bei is read pi] firm armor and hold sharp blades, with the aim of turning north to take revenge on the Xiongnu, you want to abolish the salt, iron, and equalizing transport, worrying about frontier expenses and reducing martial strategy, without the heart of concern for the frontier; this is not convenient in righteousness.

文學曰古者貴以徳而賤用兵【祭公謀父曰先王耀徳不觀兵是故周文公之頌曰載戢干戈載櫜弓矢我求懿徳肆於時夏允王保之先王之於民也茂正其徳而厚其性阜其財而利其器用明利害之鄉以文修之使之務利而闢害懷徳而畏威故能保世以滋大兵畧訓曰湯之七十里而王者修徳也智伯有千里之地而亡者窮武也故千里之國行文徳者王萬乗之國好用兵者亡】孔子曰逺人不服則修文徳以來之旣來之則安之今廢道徳而任兵革興師而伐之屯戍【音絮】而備之暴兵露師以支久長轉輸糧食無已使邊境之士飢寒於外百姓勞苦於內立鹽鐵始張利官以給之非長防也故以罷之為便也

The Learned Scholars said: In ancient times people valued the use of virtue and made light of the use of arms. [Gong Moufu of Ji said: the former kings displayed virtue and did not parade their weapons. So the hymn of the Duke Wen of Zhou says: "Store away the shields and spears, put the bows and arrows in their cases. I seek fine virtue, set forth in this music of Xia, and the king will surely keep it." Toward the people the former kings strove to rectify their virtue and enrich their nature, to increase their wealth and make their tools convenient, to make clear the direction of benefit and harm, and to refine them by culture, so that they sought benefit and avoided harm, cherished virtue and feared authority, and so could keep their line and grow great. The Huainanzi, 'On Military Strategy,' says: Tang became king with seventy li of land because he cultivated virtue; Zhi Bo had a thousand li of land and perished because he exhausted his arms. So a state of a thousand li that practices civil virtue becomes king, and a state of ten thousand chariots that likes to use arms perishes.] Confucius said: "If distant people do not submit, cultivate civil virtue to draw them in; once they have come, make them secure." Now to abandon the Way and virtue and rely on weapons and armor, to raise armies to attack, to station garrisons [Pronunciation note: the character for 'garrison' is read 'xu'] to defend, to leave the troops exposed outside for long and keep transporting grain without end, so that the soldiers on the border hunger and freeze outside and the common people toil inside, and to establish salt and iron monopolies and begin to set up profit officials to supply them, is not a lasting policy (the received text has a corrupted character here, which should read 'policy'). So it is more convenient to abolish them.

大夫曰古之立國家者開本末之途通有無之用市朝以一其求致士民聚萬貨農商工師各得所欲交易而退易曰通其變使民不倦【食貨志曰自神農之世斵木為耜揉木為耒耒耜之利以教天下而食足日中為市致天下之民聚天下之貨交易而退各得其所而貨通食足貨通然後國實民富而教化成黃帝以下通其變使民不倦李奇曰器幣有不便於時則變更通利之使民樂其業而不倦也】故工不出則農用乖商不出則寳貨絶農不出則谷不殖寳貨絶則財用匱【呂氏春秋曰農攻粟工攻器賈攻貨時事不共是謂大凶周書曰農不出則乏其食工不出則乏其事商不出則三寳絕虞不出則財匱少財匱少而山澤不闢矣此四者民所衣食之原也原大則饒原小則鮮上則富國下則富家】故鹽鐡均輸所以通委財而調緩急罷之不便也

The Grand Secretary said: The ancients who founded states opened up the paths of root and branch and connected the uses of what is and is not available; they used markets and courts to unify demand, drew in scholars and people, and gathered ten thousand goods, so that farmers, merchants, artisans, and masters each got what they wanted and left when the exchange was done. The Book of Changes says: "Pass through its changes so that the people do not tire." [The Treatise on Food and Goods says: since the age of Shennong, they cut wood for plowshares and bent wood for plow handles; the benefit of plow and share was used to teach the world and food was sufficient; at midday there was a market, drawing the people of the world and gathering the goods of the world, and when exchange was done each got his own and goods circulated. When food was sufficient and goods circulated, the state was full, the people rich, and teaching and transformation complete. From the Yellow Emperor on, they passed through the changes so that the people did not tire. Li Qi says: if implements and money were inconvenient for the times, they were altered and circulated to make them convenient, so that the people enjoyed their work and did not tire.] So if artisans do not come forth, farming implements fall into disorder; if merchants do not come forth, precious goods are cut off; if farmers do not come forth, grain does not multiply; if precious goods are cut off, wealth and resources are scarce. [The Spring and Autumn of Lü Buwei says: when farmers work on grain, artisans on implements, and merchants on goods, if their seasonal tasks are not in common it is called great misfortune. The Book of Zhou says: if farmers do not come forth, food is lacking; if artisans do not come forth, work is lacking; if merchants do not come forth, the three treasures are cut off; if the foresters do not come forth, wealth is scarce; when wealth is scarce, the mountains and marshes cannot be opened up. These four are the origin of the people's clothing and food. When the origin is great there is plenty, when small there is little; at the top it enriches the state and at the bottom it enriches the household.] Therefore the salt and iron monopolies and the equalized transport are used to circulate stagnant goods and regulate urgency and slack; to abolish them would not be convenient.

文學曰夫道民以徳則民歸厚示民以利則民俗薄俗薄則背義而趨利趨利則百姓交於道而接於市老子曰貧國若有餘非多財也嗜慾眾而民躁也【釋名曰躁燥也如物燥則飛揚賈逵曰躁擾也淮南齊俗訓曰亂國若盛治國若虛亡國若不足存國若有餘虛者非無人也皆守其職也盛者非多人也皆徼於末也有餘者非多財也欲節事寡也不足者非無貨也民躁而費多也】是以王者崇本退末以禮義坊【古防字】民欲實菽粟貨財市商不通無用之物工不作無用之器故商所以通鬱滯工所以備器械非治國之本務也

The Learned Scholars said: If you lead the people with virtue, the people return to sincerity; if you show profit to the people, their customs grow thin. When customs are thin they turn their backs on righteousness and chase profit, and when they chase profit the common people meet on the roads and bargain in the markets. Laozi said: "A poor state seems to have a surplus; it is not that wealth is plentiful, but that desires are many and the people restless." [The Explanation of Names says: 'restless' means 'dry', like something dried out flying about. Jia Kui says: restlessness is disturbance. The Huainanzi, 'On Equalizing Customs,' says: a disordered state seems flourishing, an ordered state seems empty, a perishing state seems insufficient, and a surviving state seems to have a surplus. Empty does not mean there are no people but that all keep their duties; flourishing does not mean many people but that all seek the branch trades; surplus does not mean much wealth but that desires are measured and affairs few; insufficient does not mean no goods but that the people are restless and spend much.] So the king honors the root occupation and reduces the branch occupations, uses ritual and righteousness to dam up [the character 'dam' is the ancient form of 'guard'] the people's desires, and fills the stores with beans, grain, and goods. Markets and merchants should not circulate useless things, and artisans should not make useless implements. Merchants are for circulating what is stagnant, and artisans are for preparing implements; neither is the basic task of governing a state.

大夫曰管子云國有沃野之饒而民不足於食者器械不備也有山海之貨而民不足於財者商工不備也隴蜀之丹漆旄羽荊之皮革骨象江南之柟【音南】梓竹箭燕齊之魚鹽旃裘兗豫之漆絲絺紵養生送死之具也待商而通待工而成【貨殖傳曰夫山西饒材竹谷纑旄玉石山東多魚鹽漆絲聲色江南出柟梓薑桂金錫連丹沙犀瑇瑁珠璣齒革龍門碣石北多馬牛羊旃裘筋角銅鐡則千里徃徃山出綦置皆中國人民所喜好謡俗被服飲食奉生送死之具也故待農而食之虞而出之工而成之商而通之此寕有政教發徴期會哉人各任其能竭其力以得所欲故物賤之徴貴貴之徵賤各勸其業樂其事若水之趨下日夜無休時不召而自來不求而民出之豈非道之所符而自然之驗耶】故聖人作為舟楫以通川穀服牛駕馬以達陵陸致逺窮深所以交庻物而便百姓【易曰黃帝堯舜垂衣裳而天下治蓋取諸乾坤刳木為舟剡木為楫舟楫之利以濟不通蓋取諸渙服牛乗馬引重致逺以利天下蓋取諸隨】是以先帝建鐵官以澹【古瞻字】農用開均輸以足民財鹽鐡均輸萬民所戴仰而取給者罷之不便也

The Grand Secretary said: Guanzi said: "If a state has the abundance of fertile fields and the people do not have enough to eat, it is because implements are not complete; if it has the goods of mountains and seas and the people do not have enough resources, it is because merchants and artisans are not complete." The cinnabar, lacquer, yak tails, and feathers of Long and Shu, the hides, bones, and ivory of Jing and Yang, the nan [pronunciation note: read 'nan'] and catalpa, bamboo, and arrow shafts of the south of the Yangtze, the fish, salt, felt, and furs of Yan and Qi, the lacquer, silk, and ramie of Yan and Yu, are all tools for nourishing the living and sending off the dead, awaiting merchants to circulate them and artisans to make them. [The Biographies of the Money-makers says: west of the mountains is rich in timber, bamboo, grain, hemp, yak tails, and jade; east of the mountains there is much fish, salt, lacquer, silk, and sound and beauty; south of the Yangtze produce nan and catalpa, ginger and cinnamon, gold and tin, lead, cinnabar, rhinoceros, tortoise shell, pearls, teeth and hides; north of Longmen and Jieshi there are many horses, oxen, sheep, felt, furs, sinews, and horns; and copper and iron are produced in mountains within every thousand li, laid out like chess pieces; all these are what the people of the Central Plain like and what they use in custom, clothing, food, and for sustaining life and sending off the dead. So they wait for farmers to supply food, foresters to extract, artisans to make, and merchants to circulate. How could this come from government orders, levies, and appointed meetings? Each person exerts what he can and strives for what he wants. So low prices are the sign of high ones and high prices are the sign of low ones; each encourages his own trade and enjoys his work, like water flowing downhill day and night without stopping, coming uncalled and given without being asked; is this not in accord with the Way, a natural proof?] Therefore the sages made boats and oars to open the waterways of valleys, harnessed oxen and rode horses to reach hills and land, drawing in the distant and exhausting the deep, in order to join with many things and benefit the people. [The Book of Changes says: the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun let their robes hang and the world was ordered, taking their model from Qian and Kun; they hollowed wood for boats and shaved wood for oars, and the benefit of boats and oars was to cross waters that were impassable, taking their model from Huan; they harnessed oxen and rode horses, hauling heavy loads over long distances to benefit the world, taking their model from Sui.] Therefore the former emperor established iron offices to supply (the ancient form of the word 'supply' is used here; the received note writes it differently, which should be 'supply') farm tools, and set up equalized transport to enrich the people's wealth. Salt, iron, and equalized transport are what the myriad people rely on and draw upon; to abolish them would not be convenient.

文學曰國有沃野之饒而民不足於食者工商盛而本業荒也有山海之貨而民不足於財者不務民用而淫巧眾也【管子曰國有十年之畜而民不足於食是皆以其技能望君之祿也君有山海之金而民不足於用是皆以其事業交接於其上也】故川源不能實漏巵山海不能澹【古贍字】溪壑【汜論曰水足以溢壺榼江河不能實漏巵王符曰山林不能給野火江海不能實漏巵】是以盤庚萃居舜藏黃金【殷紀曰帝盤庚之時殷已都河北盤庚渡河南復居成湯之故居乃五遷無定處殷民諮胥皆怨不欲徙盤庚乃告諭諸侯大臣曰昔髙後成湯與爾之先祖俱定天下法則可修舍而弗勉何以成徳乃遂渉河南治亳行湯之政然後百姓由寧殷道復興諸侯來朝以其遵成湯之徳也泰族訓曰夫水出於山而入於海稼生於田而藏於倉聖人見其所生則知其所歸矣故舜深藏黃金於蔪巖之山所以塞貪鄙之心也】高帝禁商賈【音古】不得仕宦所以遏貪鄙之俗而醇至誠之風也【食貨志曰秦兼天下幣為二等黃金以鎰為名上幣銅錢質如周錢文曰半兩重如其文而珠玉貝銀錫之屬為器飾寳藏不為幣然各隨時而輕重漢興以為秦錢重難用更令民鑄防錢黃金一斤而不軌逐利之民畜積餘贏以稽市物痛騰躍米至石萬錢馬至四百金天下已平高祖乃令賈人不得衣絲乗車重稅租以困辱之孝惠高後時為天下初定復弛商賈之律然市井子孫亦不得官為吏顔師古曰欲令務農也】排困市井【排斥也】坊【古防字】塞利門而民猶為非也況上之為利乎傳【去聲】曰諸侯好【去聲】利則大夫鄙大夫鄙則士貪士貪則庻人盜【劉向曰周天子使家父毛伯求金於諸侯春秋譏之故天子好利則諸侯貪諸侯貪則大夫鄙大夫鄙則庻人盜上之變下猶風之靡草也故為人君者明貴徳而賤利以道下下之為惡尚不可止今隱公貪利而身自漁濟上而行八佾以此化於國人國人安得不解於義解於義而縱其欲則災害起而臣下僻矣故其元年始書言災害將起國家將亂云爾司馬遷曰餘讀孟子書至梁惠王問何以利吾國未嘗不廢書而嘆也曰嗟乎利誠亂之始也夫子罕言利者常防其原也故曰放於利而行多怨自天子至於庶人好利之何以異哉】是開利孔為民罪梯者也【管子曰利出於一孔者其國無敵出二孔者其兵不詘出三孔者不可以舉兵出四孔者其國必亡先王知其然故塞民之養隘其利途故予之在君介之在君貧之在君富之在君故民之戴上如日月親君若父母梯階也詩曰無拳無勇職為亂階】

The Learned Scholars said: If a state has the abundance of fertile fields and the people do not have enough to eat, it is because the trades of merchant and artisan have flourished and the root occupation has been abandoned; if it has the goods of mountains and seas and the people do not have enough resources, it is because they do not devote themselves to the people's use and there is too much ornate cleverness. [Guanzi says: if a state has ten years of stored goods yet the people do not have enough to eat, it is because all rely on skill to hope for the ruler's stipend; if the ruler has the money of mountains and seas and the people lack enough to use, it is because all rely on their trades to deal with those above.] So the waters of rivers and springs cannot fill a leaking vessel, and mountains and seas cannot supply (the ancient form of 'supply') the stream-valleys' appetite. [The Huainanzi, 'On Broad Discussion,' says: a foot of water (the received text lost a rare character here) can overflow a jug and cup, but rivers cannot fill a leaking vessel. Wang Fu says: mountain forests cannot feed wildfire, and rivers and seas cannot fill a leaking vessel.] So Pangeng gathered his people in a plain dwelling and Shun hid gold deep away. [The Annals of Yin says: in the time of Emperor Pangeng, Yin had already made its capital north of the river; Pangeng crossed south of the river and resettled the old residence of Cheng Tang, and so moved five times without a fixed place, and the Yin people all sighed and resented it and did not want to move. Pangeng then told the feudal lords and great ministers: "Formerly the High Ruler Cheng Tang, together with your ancestors, settled the world; the rules can be kept, and if you abandon them and do not strive, how will you achieve virtue?" Then he crossed south of the river, governed Bo, and carried out the ordinances of Tang, and the people were at peace from this, the Way of Yin revived, and the feudal lords came to court because he followed the virtue of Cheng Tang. The Huainanzi, 'On the Clan of Tai,' says: water comes out of the mountains and enters the sea, and crops are born in fields and stored in granaries; the sage, seeing where something is born, knows where it ends up. So Shun hid gold deep in the steep mountains to block the minds of the greedy and mean.] Emperor Gao forbade merchants [pronunciation note: the character 'merchant' is read 'gu'] from holding office, in order to restrain the custom of greed and make the custom of utmost sincerity pure. [The Treatise on Food and Goods says: when Qin annexed the world, money was divided into two grades: gold was named by the yi and was the upper currency; copper coins were of a quality like the Zhou coins, inscribed 'half liang', and weighed as the inscription said. Pearls, jade, tortoise shells, cowries (the received text lost a rare character here), silver, and tin were used for ornaments and treasures and not as currency, but each rose and fell in value according to the time. When the Han arose, they thought the Qin coins too heavy and difficult to use and ordered the people to cast elm-pod coins (the received text has a corrupted character here), and gold was reckoned by the jin. The lawless people chasing profit hoarded surplus to corner market goods, so prices soared, and rice reached ten thousand coins a shi and horses four hundred pieces of gold. When the world was settled, Gaozu ordered that merchants not wear silk or ride in carriages, and levied heavy taxes to harass and humiliate them. In the reigns of Emperor Xiaohui and Empress Gao, since the world was newly settled, they relaxed the laws on merchants, yet the descendants of market people still could not hold office. Yan Shigu says: this was to make them take up farming.] He pushed aside and pinned down the market people [the character 'push' means to push aside], and blocked [the character 'block' is the ancient form of 'guard'] the gate of profit, and yet the people still did what they should not; how much more if those above seek profit themselves? The tradition [pronunciation note: the character for 'tradition' is read in the departing tone] says: when the feudal lords love [pronunciation note: the character 'love' is read in the departing tone] profit, the grand officers are mean; when the grand officers are mean, the officers are greedy; when the officers are greedy, the commoners steal. [Liu Xiang says: the Son of Heaven of Zhou sent Jiafu and Mao Bo to ask the feudal lords for gold, and the Spring and Autumn Annals criticized this. So when the Son of Heaven loves profit, the feudal lords are greedy; when the feudal lords are greedy, the grand officers are mean; when the grand officers are mean, the commoners steal. Those above change those below as wind bends grass. So one who is a ruler should clearly value virtue and make light of profit in order to guide those below. Even so, evil below cannot be stopped; now Duke Yin was greedy for profit and personally fished in the Ji River, and used eight rows of dancers above, and used this to teach the people of the state; how could the people of the state not become negligent of righteousness? Being negligent of righteousness and indulging desire, disaster arises and ministers become crooked. So in the first year of Duke Yin the Annals begins recording locusts (the received text lost a rare character here), which means disaster is about to arise and the state about to fall into disorder. Sima Qian says: when I read the book of Mencius, and came to King Hui of Liang asking 'How can you profit my state?', I never failed to put down the book and sigh, saying: profit is truly the beginning of disorder. The Master rarely spoke of profit, constantly guarding against its source. So it is said that if one acts relying on profit, there is much resentment. From the Son of Heaven to the commoners, how does the fault (the received text lost a rare character here) of loving profit differ?] This is opening a hole of profit and providing the people a staircase to crime. [Guanzi says: where profit comes out of one hole, the state has no enemy; where out of two holes, its army cannot be subdued; where out of three holes, it cannot raise an army; where out of four holes, the state will surely perish. The former kings knew this, so they blocked the people's means of support and narrowed the paths of profit, so that giving lay with the ruler, taking away lay with the ruler, making poor lay with the ruler, and making rich lay with the ruler, and so the people loved their superiors like the sun and moon and were close to their ruler like parents. 'Staircase' means steps. The Book of Odes says: "They have no fist of courage, only a staircase to disorder."]

大夫曰徃者郡國諸侯各以其物貢輸徃來煩雜物多苦惡或不償其費故郡置輸官以相給運而便逺方之貢故曰均輸開委府於京以籠貨物【籠包舉也】賤即買貴即賣是以縣官不失實【如淳曰縣官天子也張晏曰不敢斥言天子謂之縣官也】商賈【音古】無所牟利【如淳曰牟取也】故曰平凖平凖則民不失職均輸則民齊勞逸故平凖均輸所以平萬物而便百姓非開利孔為民罪梯者也

The Grand Secretary said: In the past, the commanderies and the feudal lords each sent tribute of their local products, with troublesome coming and going, and many goods were coarse and bad, some not even worth the cost; so each commandery set up transport offices to supply and forward them to one another, which was convenient for tribute and taxes from afar, and so it was called equalized transport. In the capital they opened warehouses of stored goods to gather in the goods [the word 'gather' means to enclose and take in entirely], buying when cheap and selling when dear, so the Son of Heaven [Ru Chun says: 'the county office' means the Son of Heaven. Zhang Yan says: they did not dare directly name the Son of Heaven, so they called him the county office] did not lose real profit, and merchants [pronunciation note: the character 'merchant' is read 'gu'] had no way to extract profit [Ru Chun says: 'extract' means to take], so it was called level standard. When the standard is level, the people do not lose their occupations; when transport is equalized, the people's toil and ease are even. So the level standard and equalized transport are used to level the myriad things and benefit the people; they are not opening a hole of profit or providing a staircase to crime for the people.

文學曰古者之賦稅於民也因其所工不求所拙農人納其獲女紅【音工】効其力【食貨志曰古者民受田有賦有稅賦供車馬兵甲士徒之役充實府庫賜予之用稅給郊社宗廟百神之祀天子奉養百官祿食庶事之費周禮曰司稼掌廵邦野之稼而辨穜稑之種周知其民與其所宜地以為法而縣於邑閭廵野觀稼以年之上下出斂法掌均萬民之食而賙其急而平其興典婦功掌婦式之法以授嬪婦及內人女功之事齎凡授嬪婦功及秋獻功辨其苦良比其小大而賈之物書而揭之以供王及後之用頒之於內府】今釋其所有責其所無百姓賤賣貨物以便上求閒【音諫】者郡國或令【平聲使令也】民作布絮吏留難與之為市吏之所入非獨齊陶之縑蜀漢之布也亦民間之所為耳而行奸賣乎農民重【平聲】苦女紅【音工】再稅未見輸之均也縣官猥【音委】發闔門擅市則萬物並收萬物並收則物騰躍【司馬貞曰騰躍者謂物踴貴而價起有如物之騰躍而起也】騰躍則商賈【音古】侔利自市【行貨曰商坐販曰賈】侔利自市則吏容奸豪而富商積貨儲物以待其急輕賈【音古】奸吏收賤以取貴未見凖之平也蓋古之均輸所以齊勞逸而便貢輸非以為【去聲】利而賈【音古】萬物也

The Learned Scholars said: In ancient times when levying taxes on the people, they took what the people were good at and did not demand what they were poor at: farmers paid in what they harvested and women [pronunciation note: the character 'women's work' is read 'gong'] gave their labor. [The Treatise on Food and Goods says: in ancient times the people received fields and there were levies and taxes. Levies supplied carriages, horses, armor, and the service of soldiers and laborers, and filled the treasury for gifts; taxes supplied the sacrifices at the suburbs, altars, ancestral temples, and to the hundred spirits, the Son of Heaven's upkeep, the officials' salaries, and the costs of all affairs. The Rites of Zhou says: the Director of Grain oversaw the inspection of the crops in the state and countryside, distinguished early and late sown seeds, knew thoroughly the people and the land suitable for them, made them rules and hung them at the town gates; he toured the fields and observed the crops and fixed the levy by the yield of the year, oversaw the equal distribution of the myriad people's grain, relieved emergencies and equalized undertakings. The Director of Women's Work oversaw the rules of women's tasks and issued materials for the women's work of the palace women and inner ladies; whenever he issued tasks to palace women, in autumn they presented their work, and he distinguished good from bad, compared large from small and estimated the price, wrote the goods on labels, supplied the king and queen, and distributed to the inner treasury.] Now they set aside what the people have and demand what they lack, and the common people sell their goods cheaply to meet the demands of their superiors. In some commanderies [pronunciation note] they order [pronunciation note: the character 'order' is read in the level tone, meaning 'cause to'] the people to make cloth and floss, and officials create difficulties and trade with them. What officials collect is not only the fine silk of Qi and Tao and the cloth of Shu and Han, but also what the people make, and they sell it with cunning tricks. Farmers are further [pronunciation note: the character 'further' is read in the level tone] distressed, and women's work [pronunciation note] is taxed again, and one does not see the 'equalized' in equalized transport. The Son of Heaven issues goods at will [pronunciation note: the character 'at will' is read 'wei'] and closes the gates to buy exclusively, so the myriad things are bought up together; when the myriad things are bought up together, prices leap [Sima Zhen says: 'leap' means prices surge and rise, like things leaping up]; when prices leap, merchants [pronunciation note] profit by buying and selling themselves [one who moves goods is called a trader, one who sits and sells is called a merchant]; when merchants profit by buying and selling themselves, officials tolerate treacherous bullies, and rich merchants hoard goods and stockpile them to wait for the people's urgent need; petty merchants [pronunciation note] and treacherous officials buy cheap and sell dear, and one does not see the 'level' in level standard. The equalized transport of antiquity was used to equalize toil and ease and make tribute convenient, not to seek profit [pronunciation note: the character 'for' is read in the departing tone] by buying and selling [pronunciation note] the myriad things.

大夫曰王者塞天財禁關市執凖守時以輕重御民豐年嵗登則儲積以備乏絶凶年惡嵗則行幣物流有餘而調不足也昔禹水湯旱百姓匱乏或相假以接衣食禹以歷山之金湯以嚴山之銅鑄【音注】幣以贈其民而天下稱仁徃者財用不足戰士或不得祿而山東被災齊趙大飢【穀梁傳曰五穀不升為大飢】頼均輸之蓄倉廩之積戰士以奉饑民以賑故均輸之物府庫之財非所以賈【音古】萬民而専奉兵師之用亦所以賑睏乏而備水旱之災也

The Grand Secretary said: A king dams up the wealth of heaven and earth, shuts the passes and markets, holds the level standard and keeps the right moment, and manages the people with the art of light and heavy. In abundant years and good harvests, he stores up against shortage and cutoff; in famine and bad years, he issues currency and circulates the surplus to supplement what is insufficient. In the past, when Yu met floods and Tang met drought, the people were in want, and some lent and borrowed to keep going with clothing and food. Yu used the gold of Mount Li and Tang used the copper of Mount Yan to cast [pronunciation note: the character 'cast' is read 'zhu'] currency and gave it to the people, and the world called them benevolent. In the past, when resources were insufficient and some soldiers could not get their pay, and east of the mountains suffered disaster and Qi and Zhao had great famine [the Guliang Commentary says: when the five grains fail to ripen it is called great famine], they relied on the stores of equalized transport and the stockpiles of the granaries, so the soldiers were supported and the starving people were relieved. So the goods of equalized transport and the wealth of the treasury are not used to buy and sell [pronunciation note] to the myriad people and devoted solely to supplying the army; they are also used to relieve the needy and guard against disasters of flood and drought.

文學曰古者十一而稅澤梁以時入而無禁黎民鹹被南畆而不失其務【韓嬰曰王者之等賦正事田野什一關市譏而不徵山林澤梁以時入而不禁相地而正壤理道而致貢萬物群來無有流滯以相通移近者不隱其能逺者不疾其勞雖幽閒僻陋之國莫不趨使而安樂之夫是之謂王者之等賦正事詩曰敷政優優百祿是遒】故三年耕而餘一年之蓄九年耕有三年之蓄此禹湯所以備水旱而安百姓也【王制曰國無九年之蓄曰不足無六年之蓄曰急無三年之蓄曰國非其國也三年耕必有一年之食九年耕必有三年之食以三十年之通雖有兇旱水溢民無菜色然後天子食日舉以樂周書曰有十年之積者王有五年之積者霸無一年之積者亡主術訓曰夫天地之大計三年耕而餘一年之食率九年而有三年之蓄十八年而有六年之積二十七年而有九年之儲雖汵旱災害之殃民莫困窮流亡也故國無九年之儲謂之不足無六年之積謂之閏急無三年之蓄謂之窮乏故有仁君明王其取下有節自養有度則得承受於天地而不離飢寒之患矣若彼貪主君撓於其下侵漁其民以適無窮之慾則百姓無以被天和而履地徳矣】草萊不闢田疇不治雖擅山海之財通百味之利猶不能澹【古贍字】也是以古者尚力務本而種樹繁躬耕趣時而衣食足雖累凶年而人不病也【梁簡文帝曰九年之水不傷堯政七載之旱無累湯朝】故衣食者民之本稼穡者民之務也二者修則國富而民安也【晁錯曰聖王在上而民不凍飢者非能耕而食之織而衣之也為開其資財之道也民貧則奸邪生貧生於不足不足生於不農方今之務莫若使民務農而已矣】詩云百室盈止婦子寧止也

The Learned Scholars said: In ancient times they taxed one tenth, the lakes and weirs were entered by season without prohibition, and the common people were all covered in the southern fields and did not lose their basic work. [Han Ying says: the king equalized taxes and set affairs right: in the fields one tenth was taken, at the passes and markets there was only inspection and no tax, in the mountains, forests, lakes, and weirs people entered by season without prohibition, he assessed the land and set the soil levy right, and managed the roads so tribute came. The myriad things came in crowds without delay and so circulated and shifted; the near did not hide what they could do, the far did not resent the toil, and even secluded and remote states were all driven to be at ease and happy; this is called the king's equalizing of levies and setting right of affairs. The Book of Odes says: "When government is gentle and harmonious, a hundred blessings gather."] So after three years of plowing there is a year's surplus stored, after nine years of plowing there are three years' stored; this is how Yu and Tang guarded against flood and drought and settled the people. [The Royal Regulations says: a state without nine years of reserve is called insufficient, one without six years of reserve is called urgent, and one without three years of reserve is called a state not worthy of the name. After three years of plowing there must be one year of food; after nine years of plowing there must be three years of food. Calculated over thirty years, even with famine, drought, and flood, the people have no vegetable-colored faces, and only then does the Son of Heaven feast with music every day. The Book of Zhou says: one with ten years' reserve is a king, one with five years' reserve is a hegemon, and one with no reserve for a year perishes. The Huainanzi, 'On the Art of Rule,' says: the great plan of heaven and earth is that after three years of plowing there is one year's food surplus, roughly after nine years there are three years of stores, after eighteen there are six years, and after twenty-seven there are nine years. Even in flood and drought, the people are not impoverished and driven away. So a state without nine years of stores is called insufficient, one without six years of reserve is called distressed, one without three years of reserve is called destitute. When there is a benevolent ruler and enlightened king, who takes from below with restraint and supports himself within measure, he can receive heaven and earth and not leave the misery of hunger and cold. But if there is a greedy lord or marauding ruler (the received text lost a rare character here) who harasses those below and fleeces his people to satisfy endless desires, then the common people have no way to be harmonized by heaven or tread on earth's virtue.] If the wilds are not opened up and the fields not tended, even if one monopolizes the wealth of mountains and seas and circulates the profit of all trades, it still cannot be sufficient (the ancient form of 'sufficient'). So in ancient times they valued strength, devoted themselves to the root occupation and planted widely, personally plowed and sowed in season so food and clothing were sufficient, and even through successive famine years people were not distressed or ill. [Emperor Jianwen of Liang said: nine years of flood did not harm Yao's government and seven years of drought did not burden Tang's court.] So clothing and food are the root of the people and farming is the people's work. If these two are well cultivated, the state is rich and the people are at peace. [Chao Cuo says: when a sage king is above and the people are not cold or hungry, it is not that he can plow for them to eat and weave for them to wear, but that he opens paths for their resources. When people are poor, treachery arises; poverty arises from insufficiency, and insufficiency arises from not working at farming. The task of the day is none more urgent than getting the people to work at farming.] The Book of Odes says: "A hundred houses are full, and wives and children are at peace."